Joseon Army
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The Joseon Army () was the army of the Korean dynasty of
Joseon Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
(1392–1897). The army defended the northern borders but seldom defended the southern regions. The army was best known for fending off the Jurchen raids and conquering the Korean Peninsula. However, Joseon's
neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, which originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) i ...
disavowed military development, causing them to be vulnerable to Japanese and Manchu invasions. Despite this, Joseon kept strengthening the army until the 19th century, when western powers and the Japanese forced them to open doors and modernize the army.


History


Early period

The armed forces of the former Goryeo kingdom were Joseon's armed forces during the reign of King Taejo. However, the officials of the Joseon court commanded private armies from the previous kingdom. Yi Bang-won and his officers staged a coup against Taejo and his brother
Jeongjong of Joseon Jeongjong (; 1 July 1357 – 26 September 1419), personal name Yi Bang-gwa (), later Yi Gyeong (), was the second monarch of the Joseon of Korea. He was the second son of King Taejo, the founder of the dynasty. Before ascending to the thro ...
, inciting the first and second strife of the princes. He advised Jeongjong to ban the ownership of private armies and become king in favor of having a central army. When
Sejong Sejong (; 15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), commonly known as Sejong the Great (), was the fourth monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He is regarded as the greatest ruler in Korean history, and is remembered as the inventor of Hangul, the n ...
ascended the throne, he created various military regulations to strengthen the safety of his kingdom, supported the advancement of Korean
military technology Military technology is the application of technology for use in warfare. It comprises the kinds of technology that are distinctly military in nature and not civilian in application, usually because they lack useful or legal civilian application ...
, including the development of the
cannon A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder during th ...
, mortars, fire
arrow An arrow is a fin-stabilized projectile launched by a bow. A typical arrow usually consists of a long, stiff, straight shaft with a weighty (and usually sharp and pointed) arrowhead attached to the front end, multiple fin-like stabilizers c ...
s and the use of
gunpowder Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, charcoal (which is mostly carbon), and potassium nitrate, potassium ni ...
.


Joseon–Jurchen border conflicts

Like
Goryeo Goryeo (; ) was a Korean state founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korea, Korean Peninsula until the establishment of Joseon in 1392. Goryeo achieved what has b ...
, Joseon made the Jurchens in the area around
Hamhung Hamhŭng (''Hamhŭng-si''; ) is North Korea's List of cities in North Korea, second-most populous city, the capital of South Hamgyong, South Hamgyŏng Province and the 16th largest city in the Korea, Korean Peninsula. Located in the southern part ...
on the northeastern Korean peninsula submit as vassals. The Joseon Koreans tried to deal with the military threat posed by the Jurchens by using both forceful means and incentives and by launching military attacks. At the same time, they tried to appease them with titles and degrees, traded with them and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture. Despite these measures, fighting continued between the Jurchen and the Koreans. The Ming
Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming, personal name Zhu Di, was the third List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 142 ...
was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead. Korea tried to persuade Jurchen leader
Mentemu Möngke Temür ( or ) or Dudu Mengtemu (Manchu: ;遼寧省檔案館 『滿州實錄 上函』 ) (1370–1433) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe, one of the three tribes of the lower Sunggari river valley in Manchuria. In the 1380s the t ...
(Möngke Temür) to reject the Ming overtures, but were unsuccessful since Möngke Temür folded and submitted to the Ming. In 1433, Sejong sent
Kim Chongsŏ Kim Chongsŏ (; 1383 – 10 November 1453) was a prominent military official and politician of the early Joseon dynasty. His ancestral home was Suncheon. He was also known under the names Kukkyŏng and Chŏlchae, and his posthumous name was Ch' ...
, a prominent general, north to destroy the
Jurchens Jurchen (, ; , ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian people, East Asian Tungusic languages, Tungusic-speaking people. They lived in northeastern China, also known as Manchuria, before the 18th century. The Jurchens wer ...
. Kim's military campaign engaged the Jurchen clans such as the Odoli, Maolian and Udige capturing several castles, taking control of Hamgyong and continued pushing north expanding Korean territory to the
Songhua River The Songhua or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, ''Sungari'') is one of the primary rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about from Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea border through China's northe ...
. He then established 4 counties, 6 garrisons, and several border forts in the region to safeguard the people from the Jurchens shaping the modern borders of Korea around 1450.


Oei Invasion

In 1419,
King Sejong Sejong (; 15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), commonly known as Sejong the Great (), was the fourth monarch of the Joseon, Joseon dynasty of Korea. He is regarded as the greatest ruler in Korean history, and is remembered as the inventor of Hangu ...
sent
Yi Chongmu Yi Chongmu (1360–1425) was a Korean general who led the Ōei Invasion of Tsushima Island in 1419. He was noted for leading a fleet of 227 ships and 17,285 soldiers which landed at the Tsushima Island in Aso Bay on June 19, 1419, which ...
to raid the Japanese on Tsushima Island in the Oei Invasion as a response to Japanese
Wokou ''Wokou'' ( zh, c=, p=Wōkòu; ; Hepburn romanization, Hepburn: ; ; literal Chinese translation: "dwarf bandits"), which translates to "Japanese pirates", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century to the 17 ...
raids on Korean coastal cities. Yi took 227 Korean ships and approximately 17,000 soldiers, landed, attacked, and plundered Japanese pirate settlements on Tsushima Island. The
So clan SO or so may refer to: Arts and entertainment Music * ''So'' (album), an album by Peter Gabriel * So (band), a duo from the 1980s formed by two members of The Opposition * "So" (Static-X song), a song by Static-X * "Sō (New Love New World)", ...
, the ruling family of Tsushima, requested negotiations. In the diplomatic exchanges that followed, Korea permitted the So clan to continue trade with Korean coastal harbors under the condition that the clan suppresses the activities of Japanese pirates.


Yi Si-ae's Rebellion

When
King Sejo Sejo (; 7 November 1417 – 23 September 1468), personal name Yi Yu (), sometimes known as Grand Prince Suyang (), was the seventh monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of Sejong the Great and the uncle of King Danj ...
came to power he strengthened the monarchy established by
King Taejong Taejong (; 16 May 1367 – 10 May 1422), personal name Yi Pangwŏn (), was the third monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea and the father of Sejong the Great. He was the fifth son of King Taejo, the founder of the dynasty. Before ascending t ...
by weakening the power of the
State Council State Council may refer to: Government * State Council of the People's Republic of China, the national cabinet and chief administrative authority of China, headed by the Premier * State Council of the Republic of Korea, the national cabinet of S ...
and bringing staff directly under the king's control. He also strengthened the administrative system to enable the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively but caused
Yi Si-ae's Rebellion Yi Si-ae's Rebellion was an armed rebellion in 1467 in Hamgil Province (later renamed Hamgyong Province) led by General Yi Si-ae, a member of Yangban landowners in Kilju, Hamgil Province, to rebel against the centralized policy of King Sejo ...
. Yi Si-ae led the Iksok Force and the rebel army killing officials from the central government for not appointing northern officials to govern the northern provinces until they were defeated soon after the Battle of Manryeong.


Japanese Invasions of Korea

By the 16th century, the military became weak by the disavowment from Confucian scholars. During the
Imjin War The Imjin War () was a series of two Japanese invasions of Korea: an initial invasion in 1592 also individually called the "Imjin War", a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597 called the Chŏngyu War (). The conflict ended in 159 ...
, Joseon mobilized few military units within a standing army. Its defense depended heavily on the mobilization of the citizen soldiers in case of emergency.Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 109. When Japan invaded Korea, Joseon deployed a total of 84,500 regular troops. During the first invasion, the Joseon army was no match for their sheer numbers armed with arquebuses and a combination of arms, and the Japanese pushed them north to
Pyongyang Pyongyang () is the Capital city, capital and largest city of North Korea, where it is sometimes labeled as the "Capital of the Revolution" (). Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. Accordi ...
. When the
navy A navy, naval force, military maritime fleet, war navy, or maritime force is the military branch, branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval warfare, naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral z ...
, and the
Righteous Army Righteous armies (), sometimes translated as irregular armies or militias, were informal civilian militias that appeared several times in Korean history, when the national armies were in need of assistance. The first righteous armies emerged d ...
cut off supply lines, this gave the regular army a chance to force the Japanese back to
Pusan Busan (), officially Busan Metropolitan City, is South Korea's second most populous city after Seoul, with a population of over 3.3 million as of 2024. Formerly romanized as Pusan, it is the economic, cultural and educational center of southe ...
through many strategic battles. During the 1595–1596 Truce,
Seonjo Seonjo (; 6 December 1552 – 6 March 1608), personal name Yi Yeon (), was the 14th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was known for promoting Confucianism and attempting reforms at the beginning of his reign. However, he later gained ...
realized how important it was and tried to reform it with the help of Ming generals and established army training centers. Ryu Seong-ryong, the Prime Minister, spoke out about the Korean disadvantages. He examined why the Japanese had quickly overrun them and pointed out the flaws of their defense systems. Ryu also pointed out how efficient the Japanese army was since it took them only one month to get Hanseong and how well organized they were. He noted how the Japanese moved their units in complex maneuvers, often weakening their enemy with arquebuses, then attacking with melee weapons. These reforms helped Joseon Army repel the second invasion of the Japanese army and win the war.


Yi Gwal's Rebellion

After the
Injo Coup Gwanghaegun or Prince Gwanghae (; 4 June 1575 – 7 August 1641), personal name Yi Hon (), was the 15th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. As he was deposed in a ''coup d'état'', he did not receive a temple name. Biography Birth and ...
, the dissatisfied
Yi Gwal Yi Kwal (; 1562 – 14 February 1624) was a general during the Joseon Dynasty, Korea, known for the failed Yi Kwal's Rebellion. His family belonged to the Goseong Yi clan. He rebelled against King Injo in 1624, but failed. Yi Kwal was then ki ...
who helped Injo ascend to the throne incited a rebellion against him for trying to arrest his son, Yi Jeon. He led 10,000 of his soldiers to occupy
Hanseong The region now corresponding to Seoul, South Korea has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Age. It has been the capital of a number of kingdoms since it was established. Prehistoric It is believed that humans were living in the area that is n ...
and replace him with Heungangun, his royal relative as king. But the Joseon army led by General Jang Man retook the capital and crushed the rebellion. Yi Gwal's Rebellion weakened the military, making them vulnerable to Later Jin's attack.


Manchu-Joseon conflicts

Conservative Westerners took hard-line policy toward the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty, keeping their alliance with the Ming dynasty. The Later Jin, who had remained primarily friendly to Joseon, began to regard Joseon as an enemy. Han Yun, who participated in the rebellion of Yi Gwal, fled to Manchuria and urged the Later Jin ruler
Nurhaci Nurhaci (14 May 1559 – 30 September 1626), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Qing, was the founding khan of the Jurchen people, Jurchen-led Later Jin (1616–1636), Later Jin dynasty. As the leader of the House of Aisin-Gi ...
to attack Joseon; thus, the friendly relationship between the Later Jin and Joseon ended.


Battle of Sarhū

In 1619, the Joseon Expeditionary Force led Commander
Gang Hong-rip Gang Hong-rip (; 1560 – 6 September 1627In lunar calendar, Gang died on 27 July 1627) was a Korean general during the Joseon period. Under repeated requests from Ming China, Gwanghaegun commanded Gang Hongrip to help Ming forces with ten ...
to engage Later Jin with the Ming Army at the Battle of Sarhū. But the allied forces lost two-thirds of the Joseon Expeditionary Force. The Jurchen released the captives and allowed them to return to their homeland. Gang Hong-rip, however, was kept for his proficiency in the Jurchen language. Later on, General Gang would be led to believe that his family had died in the political turmoil during a coup in his native kingdom of Joseon. To exact his revenge on the Joseon court, he urged Jin to invade Joseon, which led to the
First Manchu invasion of Korea The Later Jin invasion of Joseon occurred in early 1627 when the Later Jin prince Amin led an invasion of the Joseon dynasty. The war ended after three months with the Later Jin establishing itself as sovereign tributary overlord over Joseon. ...
in 1627. Only during the peace negotiations did he find out that he had been misled. The Joseon musketeers being overwhelmed by the Manchu cavalry prompted a revision of military tactics in Korea. In previous decades, the
Imjin War The Imjin War () was a series of two Japanese invasions of Korea: an initial invasion in 1592 also individually called the "Imjin War", a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597 called the Chŏngyu War (). The conflict ended in 159 ...
was seen as a demonstration of the dominance of the firearm, and Joseon adjusted military forces accordingly. Both sides of the war lacked effective shock cavalry to take advantage of the vulnerabilities of unsupported musketeers. After the defeat at Sarhū, the Joseon forces revised their doctrine to have spearmen supporting the musketeers.


Later Jin invasion of Joseon

In 1627, 30,000 Manchu cavalries under General Amin (阿敏) and former Korean General Gang Hong-rip invaded
Joseon Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
, calling for the restoration of Gwanghaegun and execution of Westerners leaders, including
Kim Ja-jeom Kim may refer to: People and fictional characters * Kim (given name), a list of people and fictional characters * Kim (surname), a list of people and fictional characters ** Kim (Korean surname) *** Kim dynasty (disambiguation), several dynas ...
. General
Jang Man Jang may refer to: *Jang (Marshall Islands), part of Maloelap Atoll, in the Marshall Islands * Jang, Nepal, a village development committee in the Rapti Zone of western Nepal * Jang, the Tibetan name for Naxi, a county-level district of Luzhou c ...
again fought against Later Jin but could not repel the invasion. Once again, Injo fled to
Ganghwa Island Ganghwa Island (), also Ganghwado, is an island in Ganghwa County, Incheon, South Korea. It is in the Yellow Sea and in an estuary of the Han River. The island is separated from Gimpo (on the South Korean mainland) by a narrow channel spanned ...
. Meanwhile, Jin had no reason to attack Joseon and decided to go back to prepare for war against the Ming, and peace soon settled. The Later Jin and Joseon dynasties were declared brother nations, and Later Jin withdrew from the Korean peninsula. However, most Westerners kept their hard-line policy despite the war. Nurhaci, who had generally good opinions toward Korea, did not invade Korea again; however, when Nurhaci died and
Hong Taiji Hong Taiji (28 November 1592 – 21 September 1643), also rendered as Huang Taiji and sometimes referred to as Abahai in Western literature, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizong of Qing, was the second khan of the Later Jin ...
succeeded him as ruler, Jin again began to seek a chance for another war. King Injo provided refuge to Ming general
Mao Wenlong Mao Wenlong (; 10 February 1576 – 24 July 1629), courtesy name Zhennan, was a Chinese military general of the Ming dynasty, best known for commanding an independent detachment based in Dongjiang, a strategically important island in the Yellow ...
and with his unit after they fled from Later Jin and came to Korea; this action caused Later Jin to invade Korea again.


Qing invasion of Joseon

In 1636, Hong Taiji officially renamed his dynasty the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
and invaded Joseon personally. The Qing forces purposely avoided battle with General Im Gyeong Eop, a prominent Joseon army commander who was guarding the
Uiju Ŭiju is a kun, or county, in North Pyongan Province, North Korea. The county has an area of 420 km2, and a population of 110,018 (2008 data). Name Ŭiju appears as Uiju in South Korea's Revised Romanization and as Yizhou in Chinese source ...
Fortress at the time. A Qing army of 128,000 men marched directly into
Hanseong The region now corresponding to Seoul, South Korea has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Age. It has been the capital of a number of kingdoms since it was established. Prehistoric It is believed that humans were living in the area that is n ...
before Injo could escape to
Ganghwa Island Ganghwa Island (), also Ganghwado, is an island in Ganghwa County, Incheon, South Korea. It is in the Yellow Sea and in an estuary of the Han River. The island is separated from Gimpo (on the South Korean mainland) by a narrow channel spanned ...
, driving Injo to Namhan Mountain Fortress instead. They ran out of food and supplies after the Manchu cut all supply lines during the siege. Injo finally surrendered to the Qing dynasty ceremoniously, bowing to the Hong Taiji nine times as Hong Taiji's servant and agreeing to the
Treaty of Samjeondo A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between sovereign states and/or international organizations that is governed by international law. A treaty may also be known as an international agreement, protocol, covenant, convention ...
, which required Injo to send his first son and second son to China as captives.
Joseon Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
then became a
tributary state A tributary state is a pre-modern state in a particular type of subordinate relationship to a more powerful state which involved the sending of a regular token of submission, or tribute, to the superior power (the suzerain). This token often ...
to the Qing dynasty, and the Qing went on to conquer the Central Plain in 1644. Though they lost the wars, their performance left a strong impression on the Manchus. The first emperor of the newly declared Qing dynasty later wrote: "The Koreans are incapable on horseback but do not transgress the principles of the military arts. They excel at infantry fighting."


Military expansion

Hyojong rose the throne after Injo and Sohyeon's death, he began to reform and expand the military of Korea. First, he removed
Kim Ja-jeom Kim may refer to: People and fictional characters * Kim (given name), a list of people and fictional characters * Kim (surname), a list of people and fictional characters ** Kim (Korean surname) *** Kim dynasty (disambiguation), several dynas ...
, who had corrupted politics and had greater power than the king himself. Then, he called
Song Si-yeol A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usuall ...
and Kim Sang-heon to his court, who supported the war against the Qing Dynasty. His military expansion was massive, and he also built several border fortresses along
Yalu River The Yalu River () or Amnok River () is a river on the border between China and North Korea. Together with the Tumen River to its east, and a small portion of Paektu Mountain, the Yalu forms the border between China and North Korea. Its valle ...
where Joseon and Qing shared a border. When a band of Dutch sailors, including
Hendrick Hamel Hendrick Hamel (1630 – after 1692) was a Dutch sailor. He provided the first Western account of Korea. Little is known of Hamel's early life and life after his journey to Korea. He was born in the Netherlands in 1630, and sailed to the Dutch ...
, drifted on
Jeju Island Jeju Island (Jeju language, Jeju/) is South Korea's largest island, covering an area of , which is 1.83% of the total area of the country. Alongside outlying islands, it is part of Jeju Province and makes up the majority of the province. The i ...
, Hyojong ordered them to build muskets for the army, making it the first time to use firearms since the Imjin War. Hyojong could not implement his plan when his son Hyeonjong stopped him since Joseon had become a tributary state of the Qing Dynasty. The Qing dynasty continued to thrive, expanding quickly into the west after successfully conquering the Ming in 1644. Since the Manchus assimilated the massive Chinese army into their own, they became too mighty to resist. Although reformed and expanded, the Joseon military was no match against the combined Manchu and Chinese forces. Also, the Qing dynasty began to treat Joseon as its friend and closest ally. After Hyojong died, Hyeonjong rose to the throne and continued his father's military expansion and reconstruction of the nation, devastated by the Seven-Year War and two Manchu invasions.


Northern campaigns

The Naseon Jeongbeol, or "Suppression of the Russians" or the Northern campaign began when the expanded Joseon military was first put into action in 1654 when the Qing Dynasty called for help to fight against invading
Russians Russians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. Their mother tongue is Russian language, Russian, the most spoken Slavic languages, Slavic language. The majority of Russians adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church ...
. 150 Joseon musketeers, along with 3,000 Manchus, met the Russian army at the Battle of Hutong (), present-day
Yilan Yilan may refer to: China * Yilan County, Heilongjiang (依兰县), county of central Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China * Yilan Town, Heilongjiang (依兰镇), seat of Yilan County * Yilan, Jilin (依兰镇), town in Yanji Taiwan ...
, which the Qing–Joseon allied forces won. In 1658, Hyojong sent troops again to help the Qing dynasty against Russia. He dispatched 260 Joseon musketeers and cannoneers led by
Shin Ryu Shin Ryu (; 1619–1680) was a general of the Joseon period. Biography He was born into a yangban family of the Pyeongsan Shin lineage in modern-day Chilgok County, North Gyeongsang Province, near where his shrine now stands in Yangmok-myeon ...
to join the forces of
Ninguta Ning'an () is a city located approximately southwest of Mudanjiang, in the southeast of Heilongjiang province, China, bordering Jilin province to the south. It is located on the Mudanjiang River (formerly known as Hurka River), which flows north, ...
's Military Governor Sarhuda. The joint force sailed down the Hurka and
Sungari River The Songhua or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, ''Sungari'') is one of the primary rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about from Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea border through China's northeast ...
s and met the Russian troops under the command of an Amur
Cossack The Cossacks are a predominantly East Slavic Eastern Christian people originating in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. Cossacks played an important role in defending the southern borders of Ukraine and Rus ...
, Onufrij Stepanov near the fall of the
Sungari River The Songhua or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, ''Sungari'') is one of the primary rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about from Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea border through China's northeast ...
into the
Amur The Amur River () or Heilong River ( zh, s=黑龙江) is a perennial river in Northeast Asia, forming the natural border between the Russian Far East and Northeast China (historically the Outer Manchuria, Outer and Inner Manchuria). The Amur ...
, killing 270 Russians and driving them out of Manchu territory. The battles against Russia proved that Hyojong's reform had stabilized the Joseon army, although they never put them into action again. Despite the campaigns, Russia and Joseon remained on good terms.


Yi In-jwa's Rebellion

Yi In-jwa attempted a
coup d'état A coup d'état (; ; ), or simply a coup , is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is said to take place when a leader, having come to powe ...
in March 1728 by a coalition of the radical faction of the Namin and the excluded
Soron Soron is a town in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. History Kasganj district was formed on 17 April 2008 by splitting Kasganj, Patiali and Sahawar Tehsils from Etah district. Amir Khusro belongs to Patiali tehsil of the district. Soron is the ...
faction. After the death of King Gyeongjong and the ascension of
King Yeongjo Yeongjo (; 31 October 1694 – 22 April 1776), personal name Yi Geum (), was the 21st monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of King Sukjong by his concubine, Royal Noble Consort Suk of the Haeju Choe clan. Before asc ...
to the throne, the position of the
Noron The Noron () were a political faction of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea. They consisted of the supporters of Song Siyeol after the split of the Westerners. The Noron suffered setbacks with regent Kim Seok-ju's death in 1684 and Song's execution in 1 ...
faction was restored, and Soron, who had instigated the rebellion under the pretext of protecting King Gyeongjong, was punished and excluded from power. Shortly after ascending to the throne, Yeongjo pursued a policy of equal recruitment, believing that factional strife was detrimental to the country's development. In response, the radical faction of the Soron group justified their rebellion by raising suspicions about the circumstances of King Gyeongjong's death and claiming that King Yeongjo was not the legitimate heir of King Sukjong, thereby securing their power. The rebellion began on March 15 when Yi In-jwa captured Cheongju Castle. The rebel forces, marching toward Hanyang (present-day Seoul), were defeated by the royal army, and the support from the Yeong and Honam regions was also suppressed by local forces, leading to the suppression of the rebellion.


Hong Gyeong-rae's Rebellion

By the 19th century, royal relatives controlled the royal court through weak kings causing the military to weaken further. Hong Gyeong-Rae led an insurrection of Yangban and impoverished farmers who were unhappy with their treatment by the central government and oppressive taxation. At its height, the rebellion controlled most of the area north of the
Cheongcheon River The Ch'ŏngch'ŏn is a river in North Korea having its source in the Rangrim Mountains of Chagang Province and emptying into the Yellow Sea at Sinanju. The river flows past Myohyang-san and through the city of Anju, South P'yŏngan Province. ...
, including the fortified town of
Jeongju Chŏngju (; also Jŏngju) is a '' si'', or city, in southern North P'yŏngan Province, North Korea. Prior to 1994, it was designated as a ''kun'' or county. The terrain is mostly level, but mountainous in the north. To the south lies the Chong ...
, to withstand invasions from Manchuria (part of the Qing Empire). Whenever the rebels took over a district, they opened the government granaries and distributed the grain to the people. However, the insurgents suffered disastrous defeats in the battles of Pine Grove and Four Pine Field and forced the rebels to withdraw to Jeongju, which came under siege by government forces. The rebellion was put down a few months later, on May 29, when the government forces breached the town wall with a gunpowder charge. Thousands of people caught up in the uprising, including boys as young as 10, were executed. Hong Gyeong-Rae died in the fighting. Other rebel leaders were also killed in battle or executed.


Foreign incursions and reorganization

Joseon's isolation policies allowed the military to fire on foreign ships. When the USS ''General Sherman'' arrived at Ganghwa Island, they requested the government to open for trade, but the army sank their ship and killed their crew. In 1866, the French launched a putative expedition on Ganghwa Island to demand the government release the catholic priests, but were repulsed by the Tiger Hunters. They spearheaded the defense of Ganghwa with the army. The French left during the winter when they received news that the priests had escaped. In 1871, the Americans too launched a putative expedition to demand the government open for trade and apologize for the General Sherman Incident. The Tiger Hunters again spearheaded the defense, but the army and their coastal fortresses did not match their superior firepower. 20 Koreans were captured as bargaining chips for the Americans but released the prisoners before they left after a diplomatic failure. These small victories and foreign diplomatic defeats made the Joseon Army blind to its inferiority to modern armies. Japan plundered and pillaged Ganghwa Island for firing on their gunboat , finally forcing them to open doors to the world and modernize the army which will eventually lead to the development of the armed forces of the Korean Empire.


Organization

The command system of the army was that one or two provincial commanders from each province commanded a provincial base, and each county and city had a commander. The Joseon Army comprises foot soldiers, archers, musketeers, artillery, cavalry, and elite soldiers, the ''Pengbaesu'' and ''Gabsa''. The ''Pengbaesu'' are shield-bearing foot soldiers. The ''Gabsa'' was the highest caliber of soldiers who served as elite foot soldiers and cavalry (or mounted infantry). In a typical battle formation, a high-ranking officer leads Joseon troops. A mid-ranking officer with two low-ranking officers beside him leads a battle formation consisting of ''Pengbaesu'' in the front, gunners following them, spearmen behind them, and archers in the rear. The ''Gapsa'' protects the formation on the left and right flanks on foot or horses. Their officers in the Joseon army came exclusively from the
yangban The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon period. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil officials and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats wh ...
, and the king appointed them. Still, they valued scholarship over war as something unworthy of a Confucian gentleman-scholar. The quality of Korean generals varies. Some Korean officers being able, and others being men who had not devoted much time to the study of war, preferred archery, writing, practicing their calligraphy, and reading Confucian classics.Turnbull, Stephen "The Samurai Invasion of Korea, 1592–98", London: Osprey, 2008 p. 21.


Border Defense Council of Joseon

The Border Defense Council of Joseon was a supreme administrative organ established by the central government after the
Disturbance of the Three Ports The Disturbance of the Three Ports, also known as Sampo Waeran () or Sanpo no Ran (), refers to riots in 1510 by Japanese citizens residing in the Korean port cities Dongnae, Changwon and Ulsan. Summary At the beginning of the Joseon dynasty ...
. It allowed the higher military officers, the ''Jibyeonsa Jaesang'' (), to participate in the process of establishing security maneuvers to meticulously keep a keen eye on the issues of the border.


National defense systems

The Joseon Government established various defense systems to set up provincial armies and raise militias and coordinate the central army.


''Jingwan'' system

The ''Jingwan'' system was a provincial defense system that dates back to the Goryeo Dynasty, building fortresses in strategically important places. Still, it leaves some parts of the nations open to invasion, and if one falls, it will be catastrophic in any war. In 1457 A.D, King
Sejo Sejo (; 7 November 1417 – 23 September 1468), personal name Yi Yu (), sometimes known as Grand Prince Suyang (), was the seventh monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of Sejong the Great and the uncle of King Danj ...
reshuffled the defense system to secure as many defensive fortresses as possible to enhance the defensive depth. It comprises a ''Jujin'', the main fortress commanded by a ''Byeongsa'', a provincial military commander who takes a regional defense and orders lower unit commanders. A ''Geojin'', a medium-sized local administrative unit commanded by a ''Byeongmajeoljesa'' or ''Cheomjeoljesa'' (Geojin Military Commander) between the provincial capital and small local towns called ''Jejins'', who are commanded by the chief local magistrates or a military commander. Using this strategic composition, a ''Jingwan'' fights and defend their provinces, and every province has several independent ''Jingwans''. Under this system, the roles of local commanders were to be stationed at their post, know the local topography inside and out, draft the operation plan, train local soldiers, and defend their defensive quarter by mobilizing their local soldiers in the case of conflict. However, when there was a massive invasion, there were not enough soldiers to defend their provinces as it was also a dispersed-force defense system. It requires the concentrated use of forced local forces to defend their defense perimeters, and the ''Bupiljeoktajinjijobeob'' rule prevents provinces from coming to each other's aid. They requested military commanders from the central government who did not know a familiar province's terrain.


''Jeseungbangryak'' system

Joseon army mobilizes its troops through the ''Jeseungbangryak'' system. It allowed the military commanders from the central government to control assembled troops from the main army to the local and provincial armies. But, local officers could not individually respond to a foreign invasion outside their jurisdiction until a higher ranking general, appointed by the king's court, arrived with a newly mobilized army.Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 17–18. It was a highly inefficient arrangement since the nearby forces would remain stationary until the mobile border commander arrived on the scene and took control. Secondly, as the appointed General often came from an outside region. The general was unlikely unfamiliar with the natural environment, the available technology, and staffing of the invaded region. Finally, as the government never maintained the main army, new and ill-trained recruits conscripted during war constituted a significant part of the army.


''Sogo'' system

Seonjo Seonjo (; 6 December 1552 – 6 March 1608), personal name Yi Yeon (), was the 14th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was known for promoting Confucianism and attempting reforms at the beginning of his reign. However, he later gained ...
established the ''Sogo'' system in 1593, a militia system during the Imjin war based on the Ming Chinese militia system and military texts. He believed a communal nature of the defense forces would prevent the populace from deserting and allow the country to respond more quickly to invasions. Under this system, county magistrates or army commanders organized all families of the Joseon Society from villages and counties into militia armies with hierarchical command structures. They have access to the resources for maintaining and rewarding the soldiers. Five households each contributed a man to form the basic unit, an ''o''. The ''o''’s in a village or town were progressively amalgamated and arranged into eleven-man squads (''tae'') including a squad leader (''taech’ong''), three-squad banners (''ki''), three-banner companies (''ch’o''), and five-company battalions (''sa''), five battalions constituted a regiment (''yŏng'') of approximately 2,475 men. The ''Sogo'' Armies performed disastrously during the Manchu Invasions due to the county magistrates' poor management and outright corruption, who packed them with the old, weak, and infirm soldiers. During Heonjong's reign, he reduced them to a
corvée Corvée () is a form of unpaid forced labour that is intermittent in nature, lasting for limited periods of time, typically only a certain number of days' work each year. Statute labour is a corvée imposed by a state (polity), state for the ...
labor force, and their garrison commanders operated in the realms of public safety and pacification as thief-catching and tiger killing.Martin, Thomas "Bridled Tigers: The Military At Korea's Northern Border, 1800–1863", Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2019 pp. 26–31.


Garrison Command System

After the
Manchu invasion of Korea During the 17th century, there were two Manchu invasions of Korea: * Later Jin invasion of Joseon (1627) *Qing invasion of Joseon The Qing invasion of Joseon () occurred in the winter of 1636 when the newly established Qing dynasty invaded the ...
, Injo established the Garrison Command System (''Yŏngjang chedo'') to take over the training and military preparation of Joseon and separated the military administration from the civil interference of the provincial magistrates. The Garrison Command System replaced recruitment with universal conscription, which like the ''Sogo'' system, required all citizens of Joseon to enlist because most regions lacked enough population base to maintain more than three. During
Yeongjo Yeongjo (; 31 October 1694 – 22 April 1776), personal name Yi Geum (), was the 21st monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of King Sukjong by his concubine, Royal Noble Consort Suk of the Haeju Choe clan. Before asc ...
's reign, the number of garrisons had grown to forty-nine, with nine in Pyeongan and six in
Hamgyŏng Hamgyong Province (; ) was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Hamgyong was located in the northeast of Korea. The provincial capital was Hamhung. Names The province was first established as Yŏnggil () in 1413. It wa ...
Province. The other provinces had at least five, except for Kangwŏn, which could still only maintain there. Garrison commanders (''yŏngjang'') primary duty was to administer the provincial military structure and command garrisons. They also served a concurrent role of sheriffs (''t'op'osa''), shifting from military defense to catching criminals and suppressing local unrest. Magistrates were frequently appointed as garrison commanders, only nominally separating their duties. However, military men could be appointed separately to a garrison command in the southern regions without posting concurrent magistrate (''paech'i''). Nonetheless, the garrison commanders throughout the peninsula were increasingly responsible for civil policing activities at the expense of their military duties.


Army units

In the Joseon Army, there are army units between the Jeon-gi (前期, "pre-period") and Hu-gi (後期, "post-period"). Jeon-gi is based on the Owi (오위) system established during the Munjong period.


Ranks

The highest rank of the army was the Dowonsu (都元帥). The Commander in chief of all 8 provinces' armed forces. A temporary rank, the rank that commanded the local army. The scope of the command is flexible. Although it was the highest rank, it is said that the number of troops that Dowonsu could actually command was considerably small due to the temporary performance that was only permanent during wartime and the command system that was not unified into one. The second highest rank was the Samdo Sunbyonsa, the Commander of three provinces – Kyongsang, Cholla and Chung Chong. The third highest rank was the Sunbyonsa, a provincial commander. The fourth highest rank was the Pangosa: a county commander defending strategic points.


Royal Guard

The Royal Guards of the Joseon Dynasty were an elite group of soldiers responsible for protecting the King and the royal family and defending the ''Geumjung'' (禁裏) (or ''Geumjung'' (禁中), the king's residence. They number up to 50–200 men tasked with guarding the palace and escorting the king. They were divided into several different units, each with their own specific responsibilities. Naegeumwi (내금위), the inner guards who protected the King's quarters and attended to his personal needs. They were chosen from the most loyal and trusted soldiers and were highly trained in martial arts. Gyeomsabok (겸사복) were the guards who patrolled the palace grounds and outer walls. They were responsible for maintaining order and preventing unauthorized entry into the palace. Woorimwi (우림위) were the archers who guarded the palace gates and were responsible for shooting arrows at any potential intruders. Jungrowi (중로위) were the guards who escorted the King and other important officials on official business outside of the palace. In 1666, King Hyeongjong established the ''Howechung''. A select group of elite soldiers in the Joseon Dynasty who were responsible for protecting the king's seal and other important royal documents.軍/> They also served as the elite unit of the central army as Joseon Kings assigned a number of units to serve on the field.


Restriction Guard

In 1623, King Hyeongjong established the Restriction Guard (''Geumgun'') by integrating the Naegeumwi, Gyeomsabok, Woorimwi and the Jungrowi into the Office of the Restriction Guards (''Geumguncheong''). The Restriction Guard, also known as Geumgun in Korean, were a select group of highly trained soldiers who served as the personal bodyguards of the Joseon Dynasty's royal family. They were responsible for protecting the king and his immediate family members, as well as important government officials and palaces. The Restriction Guard members were selected from the most skilled and loyal soldiers in the kingdom. They underwent rigorous training in martial arts, archery, horseback riding, and other combat skills. In addition to their combat training, the Restriction Guard also received education in Confucianism, the dominant philosophy of the time. The members of the Restriction Guard were distinguished by their distinctive black uniforms and their use of black horses. They were also equipped with special weapons, such as the geom, a type of Korean sword, and the gakgung, a type of Korean bow. The Restriction Guard played an important role in maintaining order and stability within the kingdom, and they were known for their loyalty to the royal family and their willingness to sacrifice their lives in defense of the throne.軍> The Office of the Restriction Guards, also known as Geumguncheong in Korean, was the administrative headquarters of the Restriction Guard during the Joseon Dynasty. It was responsible for overseeing the training, deployment, and management of the Restriction Guard. The Geumguncheong was located within the palace complex and was headed by a high-ranking government official known as the Geumgunjang, who was appointed by the king. The Geumgunjang was responsible for overseeing the day-to-day operations of the Restriction Guard and ensuring that it fulfilled its duties and responsibilities. The Geumguncheong was also responsible for managing the finances of the Restriction Guard, including its budget for weapons, equipment, and supplies. In addition, it played a key role in coordinating with other government agencies to maintain law and order within the kingdom. The Geumguncheong was an important institution in the Joseon Dynasty, as the Restriction Guard played a critical role in maintaining the stability of the kingdom and protecting the royal family.


Dragon Tiger Guard

In 1755, King Yeongjo renamed the Restriction Guard into the Dragon Tiger Guard (''Yonghoyeong''); its total number of members increased to 700. It was a special military unit in the Joseon Dynasty that was responsible for protecting the royal palace and the king's person. The name "Yonghoyeong" means "dragon tiger guard" and refers to the two mythical creatures that were believed to symbolize strength and power. Its members were selected from the most skilled soldiers in the kingdom. They underwent rigorous training in martial arts, archery, and other combat skills, as well as in the use of firearms, which were introduced to Korea during this period. The Dragon Tiger Guard was distinguished by its distinctive red uniforms and its use of red banners and flags. Its members were also equipped with special weapons, such as matchlock muskets and bamboo spears. The Dragon Guard played a critical role in maintaining the security of the royal palace and the king's person, as well as in suppressing rebellions and maintaining law and order throughout the kingdom. Its members were known for their bravery, loyalty, and martial prowess, and they were considered to be among the most elite soldiers in the Joseon Dynasty.


Jangyongyeong

In 1793, King Jeongjo established the ''Jangyongyoung''. The unit was composed of soldiers who were selected from the common people rather than the aristocratic class, and it was intended to serve as a standing army that could be deployed quickly to defend the kingdom in times of crisis. The Jangyongyeong Guard was named after a famous military treatise written during the Goryeo Dynasty, which emphasized the importance of military training and discipline. The soldiers in the Jangyongyeong Guard underwent rigorous training in martial arts, archery, and other combat skills, and they were equipped with modern firearms, such as muskets and rifles. Unlike the Restriction Guard and the Dragon Guard, which were composed of soldiers from the aristocracy, the Jangyongyeong Guard was open to commoners who demonstrated exceptional martial skills and loyalty to the king. This was a significant departure from the traditional social hierarchy of the Joseon Dynasty, which placed a premium on aristocratic birth and education. The Jangyongyeong Guard played an important role in defending the kingdom against external threats. It also played a role in suppressing domestic rebellions and maintaining law and order throughout the kingdom. The establishment of the Jangyongyeong Guard was one of King Jeongjo's most significant military reforms, and it helped to modernize and strengthen the Joseon Dynasty's military capabilities.


Wanggung Sumunjang

The King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers, ''Wanggung Sumunjang'' (왕궁수문장), or ''Sumungun'', also known as the Suwonjang or simply the Suwon, were a special unit of the Royal Guards in the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. The Sumungun were responsible for guarding the gates and walls of the five royal palaces and Hanseong's city gates, and would also patrol the surrounding areas to prevent any unauthorized entry. They were highly skilled in martial arts and weaponry, and were trained to use a variety of weapons including swords, spears, and bows. In 1469, King Yejong established the King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers as a separate organization from the main body of the Royal Guards. King Yeongjo established the ''Sumunjangcheong'' (守門將廳) to manage them. They were recruited from the commoner class and were often referred to as "commoner soldiers" or "lowborn soldiers", as opposed to the aristocratic soldiers who made up the majority of the Royal Guards. Despite their lower social status, the Sumungun were known for their fierce loyalty to the royal family and their skill in combat. The Sumungun were known for their distinctive uniforms, which included a red jacket with black trim and a black hat with a white feather. Their uniforms were designed to be both practical and stylish, and were often decorated with intricate patterns and designs. In addition to their duties as guards, the Sumungun also played a role in various official ceremonies and events within the royal court. For example, they would participate in military parades and other public events, and would also serve as escorts for members of the royal family.


Central Army

The central army of Joseon, also known as the Royal Army or the Capital Army, was the primary military force of the Joseon dynasty, which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1897. The central army was responsible for the defense of the kingdom and the maintenance of law and order. The central army was headquartered in the capital city of Hanyang (now Seoul) and was under the direct control of the king. The king appointed a military commander, known as the Saejeong, to oversee the operations of the central army. The soldiers in the central army were recruited from throughout the kingdom and were trained in military tactics and skills. They were organized into several units, including infantry, cavalry, and artillery. The central army was equipped with a range of weapons and equipment, including rifles, swords, and cannons. The central army played an important role in defending the kingdom against foreign powers and maintaining internal order. King Taejo established the central army (''Gyeonggun'') in 1392, and his army, which overthrew the Goryeo dynasty, served as its basis. In 1393, he established the Three Armies Headquarters (''Ŭihŭng Samgunbu''). It was the primary military force in the early Joseon Dynasty and had about 16,000 men initially, but in 1448 it was increased to about 28,000 men. The headquarters was renamed the Five Military Commands (''Owi'', ) by King Sejo, making it the basis of the central army. After the Imjin War, King Seonjo replaced the Five Commands for its ineffectiveness with the Capital Defense Standing Army (수도 방어 상비군) consisting of Five Military Camps (''ogunyeong'', ) and the Escort Office (''Howicheong'') to defend the capital and the
Gyeonggi Gyeonggi Province (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Seoul, the nation's largest city and capital, is in the heart of the area but has been separately administered as a provincial-level ''special city'' since 1946. Incheon, ...
Province. Adding to the central army was the Special Military Direct Office (''Byeolgunjigcheong''). It was involved in several major conflicts throughout the Joseon dynasty, including the Imjin War (1592–1598) against Japan and the Qing invasions of Joseon (1636–1637). Although the central army was the primary military force of the Joseon dynasty, it was not always well-funded or well-equipped. The soldiers often had to provide their own weapons and equipment, and they were not always paid on time. Nevertheless, the soldiers in the central army were dedicated to their duty and played an important role in the defense and stability of the kingdom.


Pengbaesu

Pengbaesu (팽배수/彭排手),
heavy infantry Heavy infantry consisted of heavily armed and armoured infantrymen who were trained to mount frontal assaults and/or anchor the defensive center of a battle line. This differentiated them from light infantry who were relatively mobile and ...
specializing in hand-to-hand combat, were the mainstay of early Joseon infantry. They fought in mountain warfare, and in the plains, they built a shield wall to deter the cavalry's attacks. Originally, it referred to a shield and was used as a weapon. In the early stages, shields and spears were used interchangeably. During the early Joseon Dynasty, the traditional cavalry soldiers (馬兵甲士) were assigned the role of shield troops. Then, in 1415 (15th year of King Taejong's reign), a military unit called "Bange" (방패) was established and formalized, with officers and deputy officers. The spearmen were initially composed of highly skilled soldiers, but by the time of the establishment of the " Gyeongguk Daejeon" (경국대전), they were transformed into labor troops, including those employed in construction work. As it was a unit that handled heavy weapons like shields, soldiers were selected based on running and strength rather than martial arts. However, as naturally strong spearmen were employed as laborers, there was a phenomenon where respectable soldiers avoided being categorized as such, leading to a gradual decline in their social status, and they were eventually organized as "Sinryangeokcheon" (신량역천) or "Cheonin," becoming one of the most difficult forms of labor. The unit consisted of 5,000 soldiers who served in shifts of 5 groups for 4 months each. The actual number of soldiers serving at any given time was always 1,000. They were provided with 1 bo (保), which is equivalent to 2 jeong, and during their service, they were assigned to miscellaneous positions below the rank of 8th grade.


Gapsa

The armored soldiers (''Gapsa'' ()) are the palace guards and
men-at-arms A man-at-arms was a soldier of the High Medieval to Renaissance periods who was typically well-versed in the use of arms and served as a fully-armoured heavy cavalryman. A man-at-arms could be a knight, or other nobleman, a member of a kni ...
, the elite warriors of the central army who were a highly respected and privileged military unit. They were known for their bravery, martial skills, and loyalty to the king. They were first established during the reign of King Taejong (r. 1400–1418) as a personal guard for the king and his palace. Initially, they were composed of soldiers who had distinguished themselves in battle. Still, their selection process became more rigorous over time, with candidates undergoing physical and martial tests to ensure their suitability for the unit. They were small in numbers, with only a few hundred members at any given time. They were divided into three ranks: ''Gapsa daegam'' (甲士大監), ''Gapsa junggam'' (甲士中監), and ''Gapsa sogam'' (甲士少監), with the first rank being the most senior. Members of the Gapsa were exempt from taxes and corvée labor. They were given special privileges, such as publicly carrying weapons and using specific honorific titles. The unit had several branches, each with its specific duties. The ''Gyeonggapsa'' () was the main branch of the Gapsa and was stationed in the capital city of Seoul. Their primary duty was to guard the king and the royal palace. They were considered the most prestigious branch of the Gapsa and included the most highly skilled and respected unit members. The ''Yanggyegapsa'' () was stationed in the border regions of Pyeongan-do and Hamgyeong-do. Their duties included protecting the border, suppressing local uprisings, and maintaining order in these remote regions. The ''Gigapsa'' () was a cavalry unit of the Gapsa. Their primary duty was to provide the main army with rapid response and reconnaissance capabilities. They were highly skilled in horseback riding and were often used for surprise attacks against enemy positions. The ''Chakhogapsa'' () was a branch of the Gapsa that specialized in hunting and killing tigers. Tigers were a significant threat to the rural population of Korea, and the Chakhogapsa were trained to deal with this danger. They were known for their bravery and skill in hunting tigers and were highly respected by the locals. ''Gapsa'' were initially chosen from among the children of the
Yangban The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon period. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil officials and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats wh ...
and underwent rigorous training and performed several menial duties such as preparing horses and armaments. They had to have more than a certain amount of wealth to take the qualification exam, the army officers recruit the ''gapsa'' based on their martial arts proficiency. When a ''Gapsa'' completes his military service at ''Gyeonggapsa'', he receives a commission and a 4th rank according to the ''Geogwan'' Act. Instead of being treated as a bureaucrat of a certain class and receiving a salary from the state, the military, horses, and servants' food expenses were all on their own. However, filling the ''Gapsa'' ranks was complex due to the ruling class's avoidance of military service. For this reason, the Joseon government, which had to save the budget, tried to increase the number of Gapsa by increasing the lower ranks. As a result, at the time of King Seongjong and the publication of Gyeongguk Daejeon, the number of Gapsa increases to 14,800 by 1475, but the standing army, which actually has to maintain a certain number, is not managed, causing a problem that most of the numbers are falsely stated just before the Imjin War.


Five Guards

At the end of the period of chaos after the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, Joseon was mainly focused on dealing with the looting of the
Jurchen people Jurchen (, ; , ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian people, East Asian Tungusic languages, Tungusic-speaking people. They lived in northeastern China, also known as Manchuria, before the 18th century. The Jurchens wer ...
and
Japanese pirates ''Wokou'' ( zh, c=, p=Wōkòu; ; Hepburn: ; ; literal Chinese translation: "dwarf bandits"), which translates to "Japanese pirates", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century to the 17th century.
in the north. During the reign of King Jeongjong in 1400, the private army system was overthrown, and during the reign of King
Sejo Sejo (; 7 November 1417 – 23 September 1468), personal name Yi Yu (), sometimes known as Grand Prince Suyang (), was the seventh monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of Sejong the Great and the uncle of King Danj ...
in 1457, a unit called Five Guards (Owi/오위/五衛) was formed, which continued until the Imjin War. The Five Guards ("Owi"; ) were the five main divisions of the central army during the Joseon Dynasty in Korea. Joseon had a conscripted light infantry, standing army, and an elite cavalry-oriented organization, especially Horse Archer. It was specialized in dealing with nomadic looters. The Five Guards was an important part of the social and political structure of the Joseon Dynasty, and it played a key role in maintaining public order and stability in the capital city of Hanyang, and its surrounding areas. The term "Owi" literally means "five guards" or "five defenses." The Owi system was established in the 15th century during the reign of King Sejong, and it remained in place until after the Imjin War when the Joseon Army underwent significant reforms. Each division consists of four brigades, each with about 2,000 ''gapsa'' constituting the core force among them and the Five Commands administers them through the General Headquarters (''Owido''), recruiting people from all provinces and the capital. The five divisions of the Owi were: * ''Jeongnan Owi'' (정남오위) – responsible for the southern part of the capital, including the royal palace. * ''Jeongbuk Owi'' (정북오위) – responsible for the northern part of the capital, including the city gates. * ''Seo Owi'' (서오위) – responsible for the western part of the capital, including the markets and commercial districts. * ''Dong Owi'' (동오위) – responsible for the eastern part of the capital, including the government offices. * ''Nam Owi'' (남오위) – responsible for the southeastern part of the capital, including the rivers and waterways. Each division of the Owi was headed by a "Owi daegam" (오위대감), who was responsible for the overall management of the division, including recruitment, training, and deployment of soldiers. The Owi were composed of soldiers who were selected from the commoner and noble class. However, the selection process was rigorous and involved physical and martial tests, as well as a background check to ensure that the candidates did not have any criminal record or disloyalty to the king. They were also responsible for protecting the royal palace, respond to emergencies such as fires and natural disasters, and serve as a reserve force for the main army and were called upon to participate in military campaigns when necessary.


Five Army Camps

The Five Army Camps (''ogunyeong'', (오군영)) defended Hanseong and the surrounding fortresses primarily in
Gyeonggi Gyeonggi Province (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Seoul, the nation's largest city and capital, is in the heart of the area but has been separately administered as a provincial-level ''special city'' since 1946. Incheon, ...
Province. Each king established one or more camps during their reign. The ''ogunyeong'' started in September 1593 as a single military camp when King
Seonjo Seonjo (; 6 December 1552 – 6 March 1608), personal name Yi Yeon (), was the 14th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was known for promoting Confucianism and attempting reforms at the beginning of his reign. However, he later gained ...
and Ryu Seong-Ryong established the
Military Training Agency The Military Training Agency (), alternately translated as Military Training Command was founded in 1593, when the Imjin War of 1592–1598 was in progress. As the Joseon Army was struggling against the Japanese army's muskets, a new army was crea ...
(''Hunlyeondogam'', , alternately translated as Military Training Command). The agency carefully divided the army into units and companies. The companies had archers, arquebusiers, sworders, and spear infantry squads. The agency set up army divisions in each region of Korea and garrisoned battalions at castles. The upper-class citizens and enslaved people were subject to the draft. All males had to enter military service to be trained and familiarized with weapons. It was also around this time that the military scholar Han Gyo (한교) wrote the martial arts manual
Muyejebo The '' Muyejebo'' (''Compendium of Several Martial Arts'') is the oldest extant Korean martial arts manual, compiled by Han Gyo (韓嶠) in 1598 during the reign of King Seonjo. With the addition of material from Japanese martial arts, a sup ...
, based on the book
Jixiao Xinshu The ''Jixiao Xinshu'' () or ''New Treatise on Military Efficiency'' is a military manual written during the 1560s and 1580s by the Ming dynasty general Qi Jiguang. Its primary significance is in advocating for a combined arms approach to ...
by the famous Chinese General
Qi Jiguang Qi Jiguang (, November 12, 1528 – January 17, 1588), courtesy name Yuanjing, art names Nantang and Mengzhu, posthumous name Wuyi, was a Chinese military general and writer of the Ming dynasty. He is best known for leading the defense on th ...
. The agency initially had less than 80 troops and soon grew to about 10,000. In 1622–1624, Injo established three more camps to counter the Qing invasions after Yi Gwal's rebellion, the Royal Guard Command (''Eoyeongcheong''), Command of the Northern Approaches (''Chongyungcheong''), and the Royal Defence Command (''Sueocheong''). The Royal Guards Command had 260 artillery troops to defend the city walls of Hanseong and suppress rebellions. It grew to 7,000 troops after the Qing invasion, and during Hyojong's reign, 21,000 troops. The Command of the Northern Approaches defended the northern outskirts of Hanseong through the Bukhansanseong Fortress with 23,500 soldiers. The Royal Defense Command defended the south of Hanseong through Namhanseong Fortress with 16,500 troops. Sukjeong established the
Capital Garrison The Capital Garrison (Geumwiyeong, (금위영 (禁衛營) was one of the central military camps established during the reign of King Sukjong in the late Joseon dynasty. It was referred to as one of the "Five Army Camps" (오군영) along with the ...
(''Geumwiyeong'') to defend Hanyang and escort the king with 85,000 soldiers. Among them are 30,000 professional soldiers based on the military elements from the other four military camps. It was reassigned as an independent army by King Yeongjo.


Capital Defense Standing Army

The Capital Defense Standing Army was a highly trained and well-equipped military force responsible for the defense of the capital city of Hanyang (modern-day Seoul) and its surrounding areas. The Capital Defense Standing Army was established in the late 16th century, during the reign of King Seonjo, and was made up of soldiers who were selected from the various military units throughout the kingdom and were trained in the latest military tactics and equipment. It was responsible for maintaining law and order in the capital city and protecting it from external threats, including invasions from foreign forces. It was tasked with enforcing the king's laws and regulations, as well as protecting the royal family and the officials. The Capital Defense Standing Army was equipped with a variety of weapons and equipment, including firearms, artillery, and fortifications. It was also responsible for maintaining an effective system of communication and intelligence gathering, which allowed it to respond quickly and effectively to potential threats. One of the key functions of the Capital Defense Standing Army was to maintain a state of readiness at all times. The soldiers were required to undergo regular training and drills to ensure that they were prepared to respond to any potential threats. They were also responsible for maintaining the fortifications and other defensive structures in and around the capital city. During times of war, the Capital Defense Standing Army played a key role in defending the capital city and its surrounding areas. It was often supplemented by other military units from throughout the kingdom, including the Escort Office, Royal Guards Command, the Command of the Northern Approaches, and the Military Training Command.


Martial Arts Department

The Martial Arts Department (무예청 (武藝廳)) was a division of the Military Training Agency, who served as guards for King Seonjo during the Imjin War. It was an organization composed of skilled
martial artists Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defence; military and law enforcement applications; competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; and the prese ...
who were responsible for guarding the five grand palaces and providing close protection to the king. The officers belonging to the office were specially referred to as Martial Arts Special Guards (무예별감) or simply Martial Guards ("무감", 武監). It was also known as the military officials (mugwan (무관 (武官)). The establishment process of the Martial Arts Department is detailed in King
Sunjo of Joseon Sunjo (; 29 July 1790 – 13 December 1834), personal name Yi Gong (), was a Korean royal who was the 23rd monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of King Jeongjo by his concubine, Royal Noble Consort Su of the Bannam P ...
's work called Pure Study Records (순제고). The Martial Arts Department selected exceptional individuals with outstanding martial arts skills from the military training center (훈련도감). In 1894, the Martial Arts Department disbanded after the
Gabo Reforms The Kabo Reform () describes a series of sweeping reforms suggested to the government of Korea, beginning in 1894 and ending in 1896 during the reign of Gojong of Korea in response to the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Historians debate the degree ...
and the Eulmi Incident as part of the military reforms leading to the establishment of the
Imperial Korean Armed Forces The Imperial Korean Armed Forces (대한제국군) was the military of the Korean Empire. History Foundation Succeeding the Joseon Army and Navy, the Gwangmu Reform reorganized the military into a modern western-style military. The foundatio ...
.


Three Military Garrisons

The
Three Military Garrisons The Three Military Garrisons () was a central military camp formed during the development of the capital defense system in the late Joseon Dynasty. It consists of the Military Training Agency, the Royal Guard Command, and the Capital Garrison. T ...
(''Samgunyeong'', ) was a central military camp formed during the development of the capital defense system in the late
Joseon Dynasty Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
. It consists of the Military Training Agency, the Royal Guards Command, and the Capital Garrison. The soldiers of the Three Military Garrisons lived in Hanyang and played a key role in guarding the king, guarding the palace, defending the capital, and maintaining public order.


Provincial armies

The provincial armies of Joseon were military forces that were established in different regions of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. These forces were distinct from the central army of Joseon, which was based in the capital city and was responsible for defending the entire kingdom. The provincial armies were created to provide additional defense and security for specific regions of Korea. They were organized and led by the local governors of each province, who were responsible for raising and training soldiers for the army and overseeing its operations. The soldiers in the provincial armies were recruited from the local population and were often farmers or other commoners who had some military training or experience. They were responsible for maintaining law and order in their region, as well as defending against any potential threats, such as bandits or foreign invaders. The provincial armies were organized into several units, including infantry, cavalry, and archers. They were equipped with a range of weapons and equipment, including rifles, swords, and spears. The soldiers received training in military tactics and skills, as well as discipline and loyalty to their local governor and the Joseon dynasty. Although the provincial armies were not as well-funded or well-equipped as the central army, they played an important role in defending and protecting the different regions of Korea during the Joseon period. They were often the first line of defense against potential threats and were an important part of the overall military strategy of the Joseon dynasty.


Northwestern Frontier Provincial Deployment Army

The Northwestern Frontier Provincial Deployment Army, or 서북병 배치 지방군 (Seobukbyeong Baechi Jibanggun) in Korean, was a military force that was stationed in the northwestern region of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. The force was established in response to the threat of invasion by the Jurchen tribes, who lived in the region that is now known as Manchuria. The Northwestern Frontier Provincial Deployment Army was responsible for defending the border region and maintaining law and order in the area. The force was organized into several units, including infantry, cavalry, and archers. The soldiers were recruited from the local population and were trained in military tactics and skills. The Northwestern Frontier Provincial Deployment Army played an important role in defending the border region from invasion by the Jurchen tribes. However, the force was disbanded in the late 16th century due to a lack of funding and resources.


Royal Provincial Army

The Royal Provincial Army, or 각지 근왕병 (Gakji Geunwangbyeong) in Korean, was a military force established during the Joseon dynasty to protect the royal family and the royal palaces located in various provinces throughout Korea. The force was made up of soldiers who were selected for their loyalty and their ability to protect the royal family. The Royal Provincial Army was organized and led by the local governor of each province where a royal palace was located. The governor was responsible for raising and training the soldiers for the army and overseeing its operations. The army was made up of soldiers recruited from the local population and was not part of the central army of Joseon. The Royal Provincial Army played an important role in protecting the royal family and the royal palaces from potential threats, both internal and external. However, the force was disbanded in the late 19th century due to a lack of funding and resources.


Equipment


Uniforms

Soldiers and military officials wear military uniforms (''kunbok'', ). The peasant soldiers wore black military robes (''hyeopsu'' ) with white trimes and light blue long sleeveless vests ('' jeonbok'', ) representing the central army and provincial armies. White vests or various colors are worn by soldiers of the Military Training Agency. Red vests representing military police and yellow vests for military bands. Commissioned officers (usually military yangban) wore a red and yellow (or orange) military officials coat (''dongdari'', ) for middle to high-ranking officers and red and blue ''dongdari'' for junior-ranking officers with a black ''jeonbok'' and a military belt (''jeondae'', ). During emergencies and wartime, officers, ''Pengbaesu'', and ''Gabsa'' wore war clothing (''yungbok'', ) distinguishing rank by color. Red ''yungbok'' with a blue military belt represents high-ranking officers. Blue ''yungbok'' with a red military belt represents mid-ranking officers. Black ''yungbok'' with a black military belt represents junior ranking officers and elite soldiers and cavalry. High and middle-ranking officers wore hats called ''jeonrip''. Soldiers of all ranks and low-ranking officers wore hats called '' beonggeoji''.


Armor

In the early dynasty, the army wore chainmail (''swaejagab'', ) and plate and mail armor (''gyeongbeongap'', ) from the late Goryeo dynasty. The Joseon military policy required peasant conscripts to provide their armor. Chain mail, paper armor (''jigap'', ),
scale armour Scale armour is an early form of armour consisting of many individual small armour scales (plates) of various shapes attached to each other and to a backing of cloth or leather in overlapping rows.
, and padded armor made from cotton layers, iron plates, and (or) leather (''eomshimgap'', ) serving as a similar function to the
Gambeson A gambeson (also known as, or similar to where historic or modern distinctions are made, the acton, aketon, padded jack, pourpoint, paltock, haustement, or arming doublet) is a padded defensive jacket, worn as armour separately, or combined wit ...
. They were popular among light infantry and peasant soldiers in the provincial armies as they offered body protection at lower prices. Sets of leather armor worn by peasant soldiers are called ''Pigabju'' (). The central army's ''Pengbaesu'' wore
chain mail Mail (sometimes spelled maille and, since the 18th century, colloquially referred to as chain mail, chainmail or chain-mail) is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. It was in common milita ...
or
mail and plate armour Mail and plate armour (plated mail, plated chainmail, splinted mail/chainmail) is a type of mail with embedded plates. Armour of this type has been used in the Middle East, North Africa, Ottoman Empire, Japan, China, Korea, Vietnam, Central ...
. Still, they, along with the ''Gabsa'' wore a traditional form of Korean armor that persisted with the Mongols' influences during the 13~14th centuries, lamellar armor (''jalgap'', ). It was a complete metallic armor set. It comprises a ''Jeongjipmo'', a broad-brimmed helmet protecting against direct and angled impacts. It is similar in function and appearance to the European kettle hat with attached neck defenses of mail or lamellar. They have body armor reaching down to the thighs or knees and shoulder guards protecting the upper arm. In the 16th century, the ''dujeonggap'' () is the Korean equivalent of
brigandine A brigandine (sometimes spelled "brigantine"), also called a brigander, is a form of body armour, in use from the late Middle Ages and up to the early modern era. It is a garment typically made of heavy cloth, canvas, or leather, featuring s ...
which evolved from the durumagi-style armor. The ''Pengbaesu'', ''Gabsa'', and peasant conscripts wore brigandine made from cotton layers, and the plates weaved into the brigandine were either iron, copper, or leather. It became the primary form of Korean armor and often reached below the knees when worn. The helmet assumes a conical shape and has three brigandine flaps protecting the head's sides and back. The high-ranking officers wore brass scales () and middle-low-ranking officers wore iron. The elite soldiers and the cavalry wore iron or copper in the main army, while peasant soldiers wore leather in the provincial army. In the 19th century, the Joseon Army's armor usage declined as heavy cavalry and generals relied on armor while foot soldiers and light cavalry wore only uniforms. In 1867, an attempt was made to develop anti-ballistic armor called
Myeonje baegab Myeonje baegap (면제배갑, 綿製背甲) was a soft bulletproof vest invented during the Joseon in 1867. It was invented following the 1866 military French expedition to Korea and used in battle during the United States expedition to Korea i ...
, made from 13 to 30 sewed sheets of textiles and cotton combined into a thick vest to the overwhelming firepower of rifles fielded by Western powers such as France and the United States. Although this attempt was partially in line with the current method of producing anti-ballistic vests, it does not prove effective. In the late 1870s, Korean armor fell into disuse completely. File: Eomshimgap and Pigabju.jpg, Sets of leather armor, ''Pigabju'', worn by the peasant soldiers. File:Joseon swaejagab (Chain Mail).jpg, Swaejagab, chain mail from the Joseon Dynasty worn by peasant conscripts File:국조오례의 경번갑.jpg, Jalgap, the lamellar armor of Joseon worn by the ''Pengbaesu'', and the ''Gabsa'' File:Joseon plate mail in Gyeongbokgung Palace.jpg, Korean mail and plate armor worn by the ''Pengbaesu'' File: Armor and helmet.Joseon period, 19th century. Musée Guimet.jpg, armor and helmet. Joseon period, 19th century. Musée Guimet. File: Korean Joseon Dynasty armour.jpg, Joseon dynasty Dujeong-gap File: Joseon Dynasty archer.jpg, Modern reenactors wearing a complete Dujeong-gap set. While conventionally shown as red, the fabric could be of various colors. File:Duseokrinkapju.jpg, Brass scale armor worn by military officers File: Armor Made of Layers of Cotton 02.jpg, Front of the Myeonje baegab


Melee weapons

The standard
Korean sword The traditions of Korean bladesmithing and swordsmanship have served a central place in the military history of Korea for thousands of years. Although typical Korean land battles have taken place in wide valleys and narrow mountain passes, which fa ...
was the ''hwando'', a short and light-curved sword commonly used by Joseon soldiers during peacetime. The standard polearm used in the army was the '' jangchang'' (), a four-meter spear wielded by infantry, and cavalry, for thrusting and drawing while moving forward and backward. However, due to its length, they cannot throw this spear. The ''
woldo The woldo (literally “moon blade”), was a Korean polearm that closely resembled the Chinese guandao (also known as ''yanyuedao''), though proportionally smaller. It was so named because of its curved blade. Its use and its methods were describ ...
'' was a curved-bladed polearm with a spike at the end of the handle and a tassel or feather attached to the blade. The ''woldo'' was used mainly by cavalry for its heavy striking power while on horseback. The infantry, but mostly cavalry, used the ''
pyeongon The Pyeongon is a nunchaku-like weapon used by the Joseon army and is first mentioned in a martial arts manual called Muyesinbo. The weapon was inspired by the farmer's flail to thresh rice with. In the West it mostly known as a two-section staf ...
'', a -long
flail Flail may refer to: * Flail (tool), an agricultural implement for threshing * Flail (weapon) A flail is a weapon consisting of a striking head attached to a handle by a flexible rope, strap, or chain. The chief tactical virtue of the flail i ...
made from hardwood stick, painted red, acting as the handle for a chain attached to a shaft with iron nails. The auxiliary Korean spear was the ''
dangpa ''Dangpa'' (), or ''dang pa'', is the Korean name for a Ranseur (three-pronged trident-like spear) first described in the ''Muyejebo'', a Korean martial arts manual of the Joseon Dynasty (published 1610). Types There were several types of dang ...
,'' a 7–8 ft three-pronged trident with a spear tip in the middle used for close defensive combat to trap an enemy's sword between two of the three prongs. The ''Pengbaesu'' carry a ''pengbae'' (), a round shield, or a ''deungpaea'' (), a rattan shield along with a sword. File: Hwndo displayed in Unhyeon Palace.jpg, Hwando, standard sword of Joseon military File: Mydbtj-jangchang.JPG, Jangchang, the standard long spear of the Joseon Military wielded by both infantry and cavalry File: Muye24gi-weoldo.jpg, Woldo, a polearm wielded by mostly the cavalry File: Pyeongon.gif, Pyeongon, a two-section staff flail wielded by mostly the cavalry File: Korean guard with dangpa.JPG, Dangpa, auxiliary polearm of the Joseon Military File: Shields from the Joseon Dynasty.jpg, Shields from the Joseon Dynasty, two sizes of
Pavise A pavise (or pavis, pabys, or pavesen) was an oblong shield used during the mid-14th to early 16th centuries. Often large enough to cover the entire body, it was used by archers, crossbowmen, and other infantry soldiers on the battlefield as pri ...
, and a Pengbae, the round shield. File: Muye24gi-duengpae.jpg, Deungpae, a rattan shield


Archery


Bows and arrows

Joseon foot soldiers and cavalry often fought as archers with their bows which had a range of . Archers also used the ''
pyeonjeon '':ko:편전, 'Pyeonjeon, (aka "(편전)", "Junjun") or aegisal ("애기살" or "baby arrow" or sometimes "mini-arrow") is a short arrow or bolt, shot using a longer bamboo arrow guide called the tongah in Korean archery. The tongah (aka "Tong-ah") ...
'', a short arrow, and the ''tongah'' to help guide it as part of the standard kit of Chosun era archers. They can fire at an extended range of 350 meters and flatter trajectories with a faster velocity and penetrating power than regular arrows. Their quivers held 20 arrows and 10 ''pyeonjeon'' arrows.


Crossbows

Various types of
crossbows A crossbow is a ranged weapon using an elastic Elastic is a word often used to describe or identify certain types of elastomer, Elastic (notion), elastic used in garments or stretch fabric, stretchable fabrics. Elastic may also refer to: Alte ...
were used such as the repeating crossbows. Various types of crossbows were used, and there is a record that crossbows were used along with bigyeokjincheonroe in the Battle of Haengju, one of the three battles of the Japanese invasions of Korea. In addition, in Hwaseong, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, which was built as a new city by King Jeongjo in the late Joseon Dynasty, separate gatehouses (Seojangdae and Seonodae) that could fire crossbows were built, showing that it was an important weapon used in battle.


Gunpowder

In 1395, several weapons were in use: a series of
cannons A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder during t ...
called the ''daejanggunpo'', ''ijanggunpo'', and ''samjanggunpo'', a shell-firing mortar called the ''jillyeopo'', a series of ''yuhwa'', ''juhwa'', and ''chokcheonhwa'' rockets, which were the forerunners of the singijeon, and a signal gun called the ''shinpo''. These cannons improved during
Taejong Taejong (; 16 May 1367 – 10 May 1422), personal name Yi Pangwŏn (), was the third monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea and the father of Sejong the Great. He was the fifth son of King Taejo, the founder of the dynasty. Before ascending t ...
's rule. Among the people responsible for the developments was
Ch'oe Hae-san Ch'oe Haesan (, 1380–1443) was a Korean military officer during the Joseon dynasty. He was the son of Ch'oe Musŏn and part of the Yeongcheon Ch'oe clan. He inherited his father's weaponmaking secrets and served as a military commander. Refer ...
, son of Ch'oe Mu-sŏn. Yi Si-ae's Rebellion was the first time in Joseon history the Joseon Army utilized many different kinds of (gunpowder) weapons. Weapons, including the shield walls for defending against
chongtong ''Chongtong'' () is a term for military firearms of the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. ''Chongtong'' varied in size from small firearms to large cannons. There were three generations of ''chongtong''. The well-known ''cheonja'', ''jija'', ''hyeonj ...
and chongtong to destroy the shield walls and hwacha for significant damage in massive fire combats during battles of Yi Si-ae's Rebellion. During the Imjin War, they mainly used the cannon in siege action and defending castles. The '' Nanjung ilgi'' says that many captured and used by the Japanese realized their full potential. There were few instances of Koreans employing artillery in the field, with largely ineffective results."The Diary of a Militia" (향병일기; Hyangbyeong-ilgi), stored in the database of the
National Institute of Korean History The National Institute of Korean History (NIKH; ) is a South Korean government organization in charge of researching, collecting, compiling, and promoting materials related to Korean history. It was established as the Office of National History ...
,
Some irregular Korean units with government-supplied weapons fired explosive shells from mortars, but this occurred only in isolated instances.


Hwacha

The Koreans use the ''
hwacha The ''hwacha'' or ''hwach'a'' () was a multiple rocket launcher and an organ gun of similar design which were developed in fifteenth century Korea. It resembled a wooden cart with a launch pad attached, and it had up to 200 tiny Sin'gijŏn, sing ...
'' – multiple rocket-propelled arrows. The ''hwacha'' consisted of a two-wheeled cart carrying a board filled with holes into which the soldiers inserted ''singijeons''. It could fire up to 200 ''singijeon'', a type of rocket arrow, all at once. The ''hwacha'' also has a variant called the ''munjong hwacha''. It can simultaneously fire 100 rocket arrows or 200 small
chongtong ''Chongtong'' () is a term for military firearms of the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. ''Chongtong'' varied in size from small firearms to large cannons. There were three generations of ''chongtong''. The well-known ''cheonja'', ''jija'', ''hyeonj ...
bullets with changeable modules. Another variant was the ''mangam hwacha'', a boxed cart with large faces of a ''
dokkaebi () are legendary creatures from Korean mythology and folklore. , also known as "Korean goblins", are nature deities or spirits possessing extraordinary powers and abilities that are used to interact with humans, at times playing tricks on them ...
'' painted on all three sides of the cart. Armed with forty ''seungja-chongtongs'' with fourteen in the front and thirteen on the left and right sides, only two soldiers can manage it, one firing the rows and the other reloads. They can fire 600 bullets, with each barrel holding 15 shots. The hwacha mainly was deployed during the Siege of Pyongyang in January 1593 and the
Battle of Haengju The Battle of Haengju took place on 14 March 1593 during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), 1592–1598 Japanese invasion of Korea. The Japanese attack failed to overcome the fortress Haengjusanseong. Background Gwon Yul was stati ...
in March 1593. File:Hwacha.jpg, Hwacha launch pad, ignitors placed in the narrow section of each arrow to fire. File:전쟁역사실1 172 총통기화차.jpg, Chongtong-gi(총통기) Hwacha. Each of the 50 guns was loaded with four bullets, firing a total of 200 bullets. (
Seoul Seoul, officially Seoul Special Metropolitan City, is the capital city, capital and largest city of South Korea. The broader Seoul Metropolitan Area, encompassing Seoul, Gyeonggi Province and Incheon, emerged as the world's List of cities b ...
''War Memorial)'' File:Hwacha-1500s-painting2.jpg, Plans for Hwacha assembly and disassembly (Gukjo-orye-seorye, 1474). File: Demonstration of the Mangam Hwacha.jpg, Mangam Hwacha firing its gun barrels at the Jangseong Army Artillery School demonstration.


Cannons

The ''cheon'' "heaven" or "sky," ''Ji'' "earth," ''Hyeon'' "black," and ''Hwang'' "yellow" or "gold" names are not significant, being the first four characters of the
Thousand Character Classic The ''Thousand Character Classic'' (), also known as the ''Thousand Character Text'', is a Chinese poem that has been used as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children from the sixth century onward. It contains exactly one thousand c ...
. His son,
Sejong Sejong (; 15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), commonly known as Sejong the Great (), was the fourth monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He is regarded as the greatest ruler in Korean history, and is remembered as the inventor of Hangul, the n ...
, also made many improvements and increased the ranges of these cannons (called ''hwapo'' and later ''hwatong'' "fire tube" and ''
chongtong ''Chongtong'' () is a term for military firearms of the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. ''Chongtong'' varied in size from small firearms to large cannons. There were three generations of ''chongtong''. The well-known ''cheonja'', ''jija'', ''hyeonj ...
'' "gun tube"). In the early 1500s, the ''bullanggi'' (불랑기/佛狼機), a
breech-loading swivel gun A breech-loading swivel gun was a particular type of swivel gun and a small breech-loading cannon invented in the 14th century. It was equipped with a swivel for easy rotation and was loaded by inserting a mug-shaped device called a chamber or b ...
, was introduced to Korea from Portugal via China. It was divided into sizes 1 through 5, in decreasing size. The small but powerful cannons of this era saw extensive use during the
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98) The Imjin War () was a series of two Japanese invasions of Korea: an initial invasion in 1592 also individually called the "Imjin War", a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597 called the Chŏngyu War (). The conflict ended in 159 ...
by both the Joseon Army and the
navy A navy, naval force, military maritime fleet, war navy, or maritime force is the military branch, branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval warfare, naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral z ...
. Mortars used at this time were the ''chongtong-wan'gu''e, ''byeoldae-wan'gu'', ''dae-wan'gu'', ''jung-wan'gu'', and ''so-wan'gu''. These fired stones, or the ''bigeukjincheonre,'' are timed explosive shells. The Hong'ipo () was a cannon introduced from the Netherlands by
Hendrick Hamel Hendrick Hamel (1630 – after 1692) was a Dutch sailor. He provided the first Western account of Korea. Little is known of Hamel's early life and life after his journey to Korea. He was born in the Netherlands in 1630, and sailed to the Dutch ...
and others in the 1650s. Joseon also used this cannon during the 1866
French campaign against Korea The French Intervention to Korea (, ) was an 1866 punitive expedition undertaken by the Second French Empire against Joseon Korea in retaliation for the execution of seven French Catholic missionaries. The encounter over Ganghwa Island las ...
, the 1871
United States expedition to Korea The United States expedition to Korea, known in Korea as the ''Shinmiyangyo'' () or simply the Korean Expedition, was an American military action in Korea that took place predominantly on and around Ganghwa Island in 1871. Background Freder ...
, and the
Ganghwa Island incident The Ganghwa Island incident or the Japanese Battle of Ganghwa ( ''Unyo-ho sageon'' meaning "'' Un'yō'' incident"; ''Kōka-tō jiken'') was an armed clash between the Joseon dynasty of Korea and Japan which occurred in the vicinity of Ganghwa ...
of September 20, 1875. File:Cheonjachongtong-etc.jpg, This Cheonja-chongtong is the largest size. File:지자총통 (862호).jpg, Jijachongtong, the second largest cannon in Mid Joseon Dynasty. File:Hyunjachongtong.jpg, This Hyeonja-chongtong is a middle-sized cannon. File:Byeolhwangja-chongtong.jpg, Byeolhwangja-chongtong, which was one of the miniature cannons File:대완구.jpg, Large mortar with a round stone File:불랑기포.jpg, Breech-loading swivel gun File: Korean culverin.jpg, A hong'ipo cannon introduced from the Netherlands by
Hendrick Hamel Hendrick Hamel (1630 – after 1692) was a Dutch sailor. He provided the first Western account of Korea. Little is known of Hamel's early life and life after his journey to Korea. He was born in the Netherlands in 1630, and sailed to the Dutch ...
and others in the 1650s


Guns

In 1432, the
Joseon Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
dynasty under the reign of
Sejong the Great Sejong (; 15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), commonly known as Sejong the Great (), was the fourth monarch of the Joseon, Joseon dynasty of Korea. He is regarded as the greatest ruler in Korean history, and is remembered as the inventor of Hangu ...
introduced world's first
handgun A handgun is a firearm designed to be usable with only one hand. It is distinguished from a long gun, long barreled gun (i.e., carbine, rifle, shotgun, submachine gun, or machine gun) which typically is intended to be held by both hands and br ...
, named the seungja (총통) or "victory gun," which serves as a standard Korean gun. It can fire bullets, 15 small pellets, or an iron-tipped arrow. The gunners used the seungja chongtong as a club in melee combat. Other variants were the soseungja chongtong, a handheld cannon attached to a gunstock that fired a bullet and a large arrow; like the seungja, it could only fire by lighting the fuse.Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 36. The se-chongtong, was a miniature gun held by its cheolheumja (철흠자, iron tong-handle), which allows a quick change of barrel for the next shot, and fires chase-jeon (차세전, a contemporary type of standardized arrow) with a maximum fatal range of 200 footsteps (≈250 meters). The barrel has a total length of 13.8 cm, inner diameter of 0.9 cm, and outer diameter of 1.4 cm. Initially, Joseon considered the gun a failure due to its short effective range, but the chongtong quickly saw use after fielding to the frontier provinces starting in June 1437. The se-chongtong was used by both soldiers of different units and by civilians, including women and children, as a personal defense weapon. The gun was notably used by chetamja (체탐자, special reconnaissance), whose mission was to infiltrate enemy territory, and by
carabinier A carabinier (also sometimes spelled carabineer or carbineer) is in principle a soldier armed with a carbine, musket, or rifle, which became commonplace by the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. The word is derived from the identical F ...
s carrying multiple guns, who benefited from its compact size. In 1596, the ''seungja'' were phased out in favor of Japanese-style
musket A musket is a muzzle-loaded long gun that appeared as a smoothbore weapon in the early 16th century, at first as a heavier variant of the arquebus, capable of penetrating plate armour. By the mid-16th century, this type of musket gradually dis ...
s and
arquebus An arquebus ( ) is a form of long gun that appeared in Europe and the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. An infantryman armed with an arquebus is called an arquebusier. The term ''arquebus'' was applied to many different forms of firearms ...
es. The Koreans called these ''jochong'' (조총/鳥銃), which means 'An accurate gun can even shoot down a flying bird.'Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 36. File:승자총통 (1).JPG, Seungja-chongtong, a hand cannon File:Soseungja chongtong.jpg, Soseungja-chongtong, a handheld cannon attached to a gunstock. File:Se-chongtong.jpg, Se-chongtong, a small handcannon held by a cheolheumja (철흠자), an iron tong-handle. File:Korean Matchlock Musket.jpg, '' Jochong'' (조총/鳥銃), the Korean
matchlock A matchlock or firelock is a historical type of firearm wherein the gunpowder is ignited by a burning piece of flammable cord or twine that is in contact with the gunpowder through a mechanism that the musketeer activates by pulling a lever or Tri ...
musket. File:Sipyeonjapo.jpg, Sipyeonjapo, the ten-barreled musket File:Oyeonjapo.jpg, Oyeonjapo, the five-barreled musket


Strategy and tactics

The Joseon Army's defensive strategy was largely influenced by the geography of the Korean Peninsula. The kingdom was surrounded by mountains and seas, which made it difficult for invading armies to penetrate deep into Joseon territory. The Joseon Army took advantage of this natural defense by building fortresses and walls along the borders to protect the kingdom's frontiers. Some of the most famous fortresses include the Namhansanseong Fortress, which protected the southeastern approach to Hanyang (present-day Seoul), and the Hwaseong Fortress, which protected Suwon from invasion. The use of firearms by the Joseon Army was a significant development in Korean military history. The Joseon Army began to adopt firearms during the late 16th century after Korean soldiers fought the Japanese and encountered the Portuguese and Dutch traders who had brought matchlock muskets to the region. The Joseon Army quickly recognized the potential of firearms and began to produce their own matchlock muskets and cannons. By the 17th century, firearms had become an integral part of the Joseon Army's arsenal, and they continued to be used throughout the dynasty. The Joseon Army's cavalry force consisted of both light and heavy cavalry. Light cavalry units were used for reconnaissance and raiding, while heavy cavalry units were used for charging enemy lines and breaking through enemy defenses. The Joseon Army's cavalry was particularly effective in the mountainous terrain of Korea, where their mobility and speed allowed them to outmaneuver enemy forces. Joseon's longtime foe, the Jurchens, adopted cavalry mobile warfare and made numerous raids on Joseon's Northern Borders. The Joseon army focused on developing anti-cavalry tactics to counter them. Their main battle tactic is to arm their infantry and cavalry with long-range weaponry to weaken their cavalry charge from a distance and then engage them quickly and fluently. But in an actual combat situation, the cavalry charges into the enemy's spearhead formation and the battle formation. During the Imjin War, when the army formed their battle positions like the Joseon cavalry formations against the Jurchens, they were withered down by a hail of Japanese arquebuses. Then, the Japanese ashigaru engaged in close-quarters combat. But what the Koreans lack in numbers can make up for it in topography and geography. The
Righteous Army Righteous armies (), sometimes translated as irregular armies or militias, were informal civilian militias that appeared several times in Korean history, when the national armies were in need of assistance. The first righteous armies emerged d ...
utilized stalling tactics to hamper Japanese supply chains on land, but the central army could not use them until the second half of the Imjin war. The Joseon Army employed a network of spies and scouts to gather intelligence on enemy forces and their movements. Spies were often used to infiltrate enemy territory and gather information on troop movements, supply lines, and fortifications. Scouts were used to patrol the borders and report any signs of enemy activity. The intelligence gathered by these agents was used to plan defensive and offensive operations and to take advantage of the enemy's weaknesses. The Joseon Army used various forms of psychological warfare to intimidate enemy forces and boost the morale of their own troops. One of the most common tactics was drumming, where large drums were beaten to create a rhythmic sound that could be heard over long distances. The Joseon Army also used flag waving and shouting to create a sense of fear and confusion among enemy troops. These tactics were particularly effective against inexperienced or poorly disciplined troops. The Joseon Army sometimes used diplomacy to avoid conflict or to form alliances with neighboring powers. Diplomatic efforts were often led by high-ranking officials, such as the "Uijeongbu" (의정부), who was responsible for foreign affairs. Ambassadors were sent to neighboring kingdoms to negotiate treaties and alliances, and gifts and tribute were often exchanged as a sign of goodwill. Diplomacy was seen as a way to avoid costly and destructive wars and to maintain the stability of the region.


See also

*
Joseon Navy The Joseon Navy (; Hanja: 朝鮮水軍) was the navy of the Korean dynasty of Joseon. While originally commissioned to protect merchant vessels and coastal towns from Japanese pirate raids, the Joseon navy is best known for defeating the Japanese n ...
* Joseon Army (late 19th century) *
Joseon Dynasty Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
*
Righteous Army Righteous armies (), sometimes translated as irregular armies or militias, were informal civilian militias that appeared several times in Korean history, when the national armies were in need of assistance. The first righteous armies emerged d ...
*
Korean–Jurchen border conflicts The Korean–Jurchen border conflicts were a series of conflicts from the 10th century to the 17th century between the Korean states of Goryeo and Joseon and the Jurchen people. Background In 993, the land between the border of Liao and Goryeo wa ...
*
Imjin War The Imjin War () was a series of two Japanese invasions of Korea: an initial invasion in 1592 also individually called the "Imjin War", a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597 called the Chŏngyu War (). The conflict ended in 159 ...
*
List of battles during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) A list is a set of discrete items of information collected and set forth in some format for utility, entertainment, or other purposes. A list may be memorialized in any number of ways, including existing only in the mind of the list-maker, but ...


References


Works cited

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External links

* {{Joseon Military history of Korea Former armies by country