Jordanian Highlands
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The Jordanian Highlands is a mountain range in
Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...
. It extends north and south through the western portion of the country, between the
Red Sea The Red Sea is a sea inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. Its connection to the ocean is in the south, through the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait and the Gulf of Aden. To its north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and th ...
-
Dead Sea The Dead Sea (; or ; ), also known by #Names, other names, is a landlocked salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east, the Israeli-occupied West Bank to the west and Israel to the southwest. It lies in the endorheic basin of the Jordan Rift Valle ...
depression to the west and a plateau to the east. The highlands are home to most of Jordan's population and large cities.


Geography

The Jordanian Highlands extend about 300 km north to south. The highlands are bounded on the north by the deeply-incised
Yarmouk River The Yarmuk River (, ; Greek: Ἱερομύκης, ; or ''Heromicas''; sometimes spelled Yarmouk) is the largest tributary of the Jordan River. It runs in Jordan, Syria and Israel, and drains much of the Hauran plateau. Its main tributaries are ...
valley, which forms part of the border between Jordan and
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
. They extend to south to Jordan's border with
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...
. From the plateau to the east the highlands appear as a series of hills. To the west the highlands drop steeply 1,000 meters or more to the
Jordan Rift Valley The Jordan Rift Valley, also Jordan Valley ( ''Bīqʿāt haYardēn'', Al-Ghor or Al-Ghawr), is an elongated endorheic basin located in modern-day Israel, Jordan and the West Bank, Palestine. This geographic region includes the entire length o ...
, which contains the Jordan River and the
Dead Sea The Dead Sea (; or ; ), also known by #Names, other names, is a landlocked salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east, the Israeli-occupied West Bank to the west and Israel to the southwest. It lies in the endorheic basin of the Jordan Rift Valle ...
, a saline lake with a surface below sea level.Wagner W. (2011) Northwestern Mountain and Rift Zone of the Northern Arabian Platform. In: Groundwater in the Arab Middle East. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Elevation of the higher peaks ranges from over 1,200 meters in the north to 1,700 meters at Jebel Mubarak in the south. The highlands are crossed by several east–west wadis, or canyons, carved by permanent or intermittent streams. The northern wadis empty into the
Jordan River The Jordan River or River Jordan (, ''Nahr al-ʾUrdunn''; , ''Nəhar hayYardēn''), also known as ''Nahr Al-Sharieat'' (), is a endorheic river in the Levant that flows roughly north to south through the Sea of Galilee and drains to the Dead ...
, which flows southward into the Dead Sea. The southern wadis empty into the
Wadi Araba The Arabah/Araba () or Aravah/Arava () is a loosely defined geographic area in the Negev Desert, south of the Dead Sea basin, which forms part of the border between Israel to the west and Jordan to the east. The old meaning, which was in use ...
, which flows northward into the Dead Sea. The highlands are divided into three main portions.Shoup, John A. (2007). ''Culture and Customs of Jordan''. Greenwood Press, 2007. , 0313336717 The northern portion is called the ''Sawad al-Urdunn'', ‘the arable land of the
iver Iver is a civil parishes in England, civil parish in Buckinghamshire, England. In addition to the central nucleated village, clustered village, the parish includes the residential neighbourhoods of Iver Heath and Richings Park and the hamlets o ...
Jordan’, and lies between the Yarmouk River on the north and the
Zarqa River The Zarqa River (, ''Nahr az-Zarqāʾ'', lit. "the River of the Blue ity) is the second largest tributary of the lower Jordan River, after the Yarmouk River. It is the third largest river in the region by annual discharge and its watershed enc ...
on the south. Both rivers are tributaries of the Jordan River.
Irbid Irbid (), known in ancient times as Arabella or Arbela (Άρβηλα in Ancient Greek language, Ancient Greek), is the capital and largest city of Irbid Governorate. It has the second-largest metropolitan population in Jordan after Amman, with a ...
, Jordan's second largest city, and
Ajloun Ajloun (, ''‘Ajlūn''), also spelled Ajlun, is the capital town of the Ajloun Governorate, a hilly town in the north of Jordan, located 76 kilometers (around 47 miles) north west of Amman. It is noted for its impressive ruins of the 12th-centur ...
are the largest cities in this portion. The central portion is the Balqa Heights, which extend from the Zarqa River south to Wadi al-Mujib. Wadi-al-Mujib empties into the Dead Sea.
Amman Amman ( , ; , ) is the capital and the largest city of Jordan, and the country's economic, political, and cultural center. With a population of four million as of 2021, Amman is Jordan's primate city and is the largest city in the Levant ...
, Jordan's capital and largest city and the largest city in the highlands, is in this portion, as are the towns of
Al-Salt Al-Salt ( ''Al-Salt''), also known as Salt, is an ancient trading city and administrative centre in west-central Jordan. It is on the old main highway leading from Amman to Jerusalem. Situated in the Balqa highland, about 790–1,100 metr ...
and
Madaba Madaba (; Biblical Hebrew: ''Mēḏəḇāʾ''; ) is the capital city of Madaba Governorate in central Jordan, with a population of about 60,000. It is best known for its Byzantine art, Byzantine and Umayyad mosaics, especially a large Byz ...
. The southern portion is called the Bilad al-Sharat or Jabal al-Sharat.
Al-Karak Al-Karak (), in English sources often simply Karak, is a city in Jordan known for its medieval castle, the Kerak Castle. The castle is one of the three largest castles in the region, the other two being in Syria. Al-Karak is the capital city of ...
is the largest city in this portion, near the southern end of the Dead Sea. The ancient city of
Petra Petra (; "Rock"), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu (Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: or , *''Raqēmō''), is an ancient city and archaeological site in southern Jordan. Famous for its rock-cut architecture and water conduit systems, P ...
is also in this portion of the highlands, on the western side of the highlands facing Wadi Araba.


Geology

The highlands were formed by relatively recent (
Neogene The Neogene ( ,) is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period million years ago ( Mya) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period million years ago. It is the second period of th ...
Quaternary The Quaternary ( ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), as well as the current and most recent of the twelve periods of the ...
) tectonic events, as the northwestern rim of the Arabian Plate was uplifted as it moves northward and clockwise.


Climate

The climate of the Highlands ranges from north to south and with elevation. Towards the north and west and at higher elevations a
Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate ( ), also called a dry summer climate, described by Köppen and Trewartha as ''Cs'', is a temperate climate type that occurs in the lower mid-latitudes (normally 30 to 44 north and south latitude). Such climates typic ...
prevails, with mild rainy winters and hot, dry summers. A desert climate prevails towards the east and south and at lower elevations. The rainy season extends from October to May, with the heaviest rainfall between November and March. Rainfall ranges from 600 mm annually in the northern mountains to 50 mm in the southernmost highlands and the eastern desert plateau.Abu-Sharar T. (2006) THE CHALLENGES OF LAND AND WATER RESOURCES DEGRADATION IN JORDAN: DIAGNOSIS AND SOLUTIONS. In: Kepner W.G., Rubio J.L., Mouat D.A., Pedrazzini F. (eds) Desertification in the Mediterranean Region. A Security Issue. NATO Security Through Science Series, vol 3. Springer, Dordrecht.


Ecology

The western slopes and highest elevations are semi-arid to semi-humid, with average annual rainfall of 350 mm or more. The natural vegetation was Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub, occurring above 700 meters elevation in the northwest, and between 900 and 1700 meters elevation in the southwest. Forests and open woodlands are found in the northern and southern parts of the highlands. Trees in the northern forests include
Aleppo pine ''Pinus halepensis'', commonly known as the Aleppo pine, also known as the Jerusalem pine, is a pine native to the Mediterranean region. It was officially named by the botanist Philip Miller in his 1768 book ''The Gardener's Dictionary''; he pro ...
(''Pinus halepensis''), evergreen oaks (''
Quercus calliprinos ''Quercus coccifera'', the kermes oak or commonly known as Palestine oak, is an oak shrub or tree in section (botany), section ''List of Quercus species#Section Ilex, Ilex'' of the genus. It has many Synonym (taxonomy), synonyms, including ''Quer ...
,
Quercus infectoria ''Quercus infectoria'' or the Aleppo oak is a species of oak well known for producing galls (called manjakani in Malaysia, majuphal in India) that have been traditionally used for centuries in Asia medicinally while also used in softening leather ...
'', and ''
Quercus ithaburensis ''Quercus ithaburensis'', the Mount Tabor oak, is a tree in the beech family Fagaceae. It is found from southeastern Italy to the Levant. It is the national tree of Jordan. Two subspecies are accepted, ''Quercus ithaburensis'' subsp. ''ithaburens ...
''), and ''
Arbutus andrachne ''Arbutus andrachne'', commonly called the Greek strawberry tree, is an evergreen shrub or small tree in the family Ericaceae, native to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East. The etymology of the species name corresponds to the Ancient ...
''. Forests and woodlands in the southern highlands include ''Quercus calliprinos'', cypress (''
Cupressus sempervirens ''Cupressus sempervirens'', the Mediterranean cypress (also known as Italian cypress, Tuscan cypress, Persian cypress, or pencil pine), is a species of cypress native to the eastern Mediterranean region and Iran. While some studies show it ha ...
''), juniper (''
Juniperus phoenicea ''Juniperus phoenicea'', the Phoenicean juniper or Arâr, is a juniper found throughout the Mediterranean region. Description ''Juniperus phoenicea'' is a large evergreen shrub or small tree reaching tall, with a trunk up to in diameter and ...
''), and pistachio (''
Pistacia atlantica ''Pistacia atlantica'' is a species of Pistacia, pistachio tree known by the English language, English common name Mt. Atlas mastic tree, Atlas pistachio, Atlantic pistacio, Atlantic terebinth, wild pistachio, and Cyprus turpentine tree. ''P. a ...
''). In the southern forests and woodlands oaks are found on limestone-derived soils, with open woodlands of juniper growing over sandstone. In the southern highlands there are shrublands of wild hawthorn (''
Crataegus azarolus ''Crataegus azarolus'' is a species of hawthorn known by the common names azarole, azerole (from ) and Mediterranean medlar. It is native to the Mediterranean Basin and is a common plant there, growing on sites comparable to those the European ...
''), almond ('' Amygdalus communis''), and pistachio, and acacia woodlands with '' Acacia spirocarpa'' and ''
Acacia raddiana ''Vachellia tortilis'', widely known as ''Acacia tortilis'' but now attributed to the genus ''Vachellia'' of the Mimosa Family (Mimosaceae), is the umbrella thorn acacia, also known as umbrella thorn and Israeli babool, a medium to large canopi ...
'' in the transition zone between the forests and woodlands and the lower-elevation steppe.Willimott, S.G., Birch, B.P., McKee, R.F., Atkinson, K., and Nimry, B.S. (1964). "Conservation Survey of the Southern Highlands of Jordan". The forests and woodlands have been reduced in area and degraded by centuries of deforestation and over-grazing by livestock. A semi-arid steppe zone lies between 600 and 800 meters elevation on the eastern slope of the mountains, where rainfall is between 200 and 350 mm annually. In the drier southern mountains the eastern steppe zone extends up to 1100 or 1200 meters elevation. There is a narrower steppe zone on the western slopes between the upper-elevation Mediterranean forests and the lower-elevation deserts of the Jordan Rift Valley. Predominant steppe plants are low shrubs, particularly ''
Artemisia herba-alba ''Artemisia herba-alba'', the white wormwood, is a perennial shrub in the genus ''Artemisia (plant), Artemisia'' that grows commonly on the dry steppes of the Mediterranean regions in Northern Africa (Saharan Maghreb), Western Asia (Arabian Pen ...
'', and grasses. Desert vegetation is found in the Jordan Rift Valley, the southern highlands, and the eastern plateau where average annual rainfall is 200 mm or less.


See also

*
Transjordan (region) Transjordan, also known as the East Bank or the Transjordanian Highlands (), is the part of the Southern Levant east of the Jordan River, mostly contained in present-day Jordan. The region, known as Transjordan, was controlled by numerous powe ...


References

{{coord missing, Jordan Mountains of Jordan Eastern Mediterranean conifer–sclerophyllous–broadleaf forests Great Rift Valley