Johann Bengel
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Johann Albrecht Bengel (24 June 1687 – 2 November 1752), also known as ''Bengelius'', was a
Lutheran Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched ...
pietist Pietism (), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christianity, Christian life. Although the movement is ali ...
clergyman Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...
and Greek-language scholar known for his edition of the
Greek New Testament Greek New Testament refers to the New Testament in Koine Greek. It may also refer to the following texts: * ''Novum Instrumentum omne'' * ''Textus Receptus The (Latin for 'received text') is the succession of printed Greek New Testament texts ...
and his commentaries on it.


Life and career

Bengel was born at
Winnenden Winnenden (; Swabian German, Swabian: ''Wẽnnede'') is a small town in the Rems-Murr district of the Stuttgart Region in Baden-Württemberg in southwest Germany. It lies in a wine-growing area approx. northeast of Stuttgart and has a population o ...
in
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. Due to the death of his father in 1693, he was educated by a family friend, David Wendel Spindler, who became a master in the gymnasium at
Stuttgart Stuttgart (; ; Swabian German, Swabian: ; Alemannic German, Alemannic: ; Italian language, Italian: ; ) is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, largest city of the States of Germany, German state of ...
. In 1703 Bengel left Stuttgart and entered the
University of Tübingen The University of Tübingen, officially the Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen (; ), is a public research university located in the city of Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The University of Tübingen is one of eleven German Excellenc ...
as a student at the ''
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'', where, in his spare time, he devoted himself especially to the works of
Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...
and
Spinoza Baruch (de) Spinoza (24 November 163221 February 1677), also known under his Latinized pen name Benedictus de Spinoza, was a philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, who was born in the Dutch Republic. A forerunner of the Age of Enlightenmen ...
, and, in theology, to those of
Philipp Spener Philipp Jakob Spener (23 January 1635 – 5 February 1705) was a German Lutheran theologian who essentially founded what became known as Pietism. He was later dubbed the "Father of Pietism". A prolific writer, his two main works, ''Pia desider ...
,
Johann Arndt Johann Arndt (or Arnd; 27 December 155511 May 1621) was a German Lutheran theologian and mystic who wrote several influential books of devotional Christianity. Although reflective of the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, he is seen as a forerunner o ...
and August Francke. His knowledge of the
metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of ...
of Spinoza was such that he was selected by one of the professors to prepare materials for a treatise, ''De Spinosismo'', which was afterwards published. After acquiring his degree, Bengel devoted himself to
theology Theology is the study of religious belief from a Religion, religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an Discipline (academia), academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itse ...
. Even at this time he had religious doubts; it is interesting in view of his later work that one cause of his perplexities was the difficulty of ascertaining the true reading of certain passages in the
Greek New Testament Greek New Testament refers to the New Testament in Koine Greek. It may also refer to the following texts: * ''Novum Instrumentum omne'' * ''Textus Receptus The (Latin for 'received text') is the succession of printed Greek New Testament texts ...
. Bengel entered the ministry in 1707 and was appointed to the parochial charge of
Metzingen Metzingen () is a Swabian city with about 22,000 inhabitants, in Reutlingen county, Baden-Württemberg, Germany, south of Stuttgart. The city of Metzingen is known internationally for its outlets of all kinds of famous companies, centered arou ...
-unter-Urach. In the following year he was recalled to Tübingen to undertake the office of (theological tutor). He remained at Tübingen until 1713, when he was appointed head of a seminary recently established at Denkendorf as a preparatory school of theology. Before entering into his new duties he travelled through the greater part of
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, studying the systems of education which were in use, and visiting the seminaries of the
Jesuits The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
as well as those of the Lutheran and
Reformed church Reformed Christianity, also called Calvinism, is a major branch of Protestantism that began during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. In the modern day, it is largely represented by the Continental Reformed Christian, Presbyterian, ...
es. Among other places he went to
Heidelberg Heidelberg (; ; ) is the List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, fifth-largest city in the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, and with a population of about 163,000, of which roughly a quarter consists of studen ...
and Halle, and had his attention directed at
Heidelberg Heidelberg (; ; ) is the List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, fifth-largest city in the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, and with a population of about 163,000, of which roughly a quarter consists of studen ...
to the canons of scripture criticism published by
Gerhard von Maastricht Gerhard is a name of Germanic origin and may refer to: Given name * Gerhard (bishop of Passau) (fl. 932–946), German prelate * Gerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg (1292–1340), German prince, regent of Denmark * Gerhard Barkhorn (1919– ...
, and at Halle to
Campeius Vitringa Campegius Vitringa Sr., or Kempe VitringaEijnatten (2003), p.84 (May 16, 1659 at Leeuwarden – March 31, 1722 at Franeker) was a Dutch Protestant theologian and Hebraist. His youngest of four children was Campeius Vitringa (1693-1723). Vitringa ...
's ''Anacrisis ad Apocalypsin''. The influence exerted by these upon his theological studies is manifest in some of his works. For 28 years, from 1713 to 1741, he was master () of the ''Klosterschule'' at Denkendorf, a seminary for candidates for the ministry established in a former monastery of the
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. To these years, the period of his greatest intellectual activity, belong many of his chief works. In 1741 he was appointed prelate (i.e. general superintendent) at
Herbrechtingen Herbrechtingen () is a town in the district of Heidenheim in Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to ...
, where he remained until 1749, when he was raised to the dignity of consistorial counsellor and prelate of
Alpirsbach Alpirsbach () is a town in the district of Freudenstadt in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated in the Black Forest on the Kinzig river, south of Freudenstadt. Because of the local brewery “Alpirsbacher Klosterbräu“, the monaster ...
, with a residence in
Stuttgart Stuttgart (; ; Swabian German, Swabian: ; Alemannic German, Alemannic: ; Italian language, Italian: ; ) is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, largest city of the States of Germany, German state of ...
. He devoted himself to the discharge of his duties as a member of the
consistory Consistory is the anglicized form of the consistorium, a council of the closest advisors of the Roman emperors. It can also refer to: *A papal consistory, a formal meeting of the Sacred College of Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church *Consistor ...
. A question of considerable difficulty was at that time occupying the attention of the church courts: the manner in which those who separated themselves from the church were to be dealt with, and the amount of toleration which should be accorded to meetings held in private houses for the purpose of religious edification. The civil power (the Duke of Württemberg was a
Roman Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
) was disposed to have recourse to measures of repression, while the members of the consistory, recognizing the good effects of such meetings, were inclined to concede considerable liberty. Bengel exerted himself on the side of the members of the consistory. In 1751 the
University of Tübingen The University of Tübingen, officially the Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen (; ), is a public research university located in the city of Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The University of Tübingen is one of eleven German Excellenc ...
conferred upon him the degree of
Doctor of Divinity A Doctor of Divinity (DD or DDiv; ) is the holder of an advanced academic degree in divinity (academic discipline), divinity (i.e., Christian theology and Christian ministry, ministry or other theologies. The term is more common in the Englis ...
. He died in
Stuttgart Stuttgart (; ; Swabian German, Swabian: ; Alemannic German, Alemannic: ; Italian language, Italian: ; ) is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, largest city of the States of Germany, German state of ...
, aged 65. Bengel carried on an 18-year-long controversy with Nicolaus Ludwig, Count von Zinzendorf, leader of the
Moravian Brethren The Moravian Church, or the Moravian Brethren ( or ), formally the (Latin: "Unity of the Brethren"), is one of the oldest Protestant denominations in Christianity, dating back to the Bohemian Reformation of the 15th century and the original U ...
from
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in
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. This led to a break between the Moravian Brethren and the dour Pietism typical of Württemberg, represented by Bengel. With his determined certainty giving him systematic insight into the divine Plan of Salvation, Bengel dogmatically opposed the dynamic, ecumenical, missionary efforts of Zinzendorf, who was indifferent to all dogmatism and intolerance. As Bengel did not hesitate to manipulate historical calendars in his
chiliastic Millennialism () or chiliasm (from the Greek equivalent) is a belief which is held by some religious denominations. According to this belief, a Messianic Age will be established on Earth prior to the Last Judgment and the future permanent s ...
attempts to predict the end of the world, Zinzendorf rejected this as superstitious "interpretation of signs." His reputation as a Biblical scholar and critic rests chiefly on his edition of the Greek New Testament (1734) and his
exegetical Exegesis ( ; from the Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Biblical works. In modern usage, exegesis can involve critical interpretations ...
annotations on the same, which have passed through many editions in Latin, German, and English and are still highly valued by expositors of the New Testament.


Greek New Testament

Bengel's edition of the Greek New Testament was published at Tübingen in 1734, and at Stuttgart in the same year, but without the critical apparatus. As early as 1725, in an addition to his edition of ''Chrysostoms De Sacerdotio'', he had given an account in his ''Prodromus Novi Testamenti Graeci recte cauteque adornandi'' of the principles on which his intended edition was to be based. In preparation for his work, Bengel was able to avail himself of the collations of upwards of twenty manuscripts, none of them, however, of great importance, twelve of which had been collated by himself. In constituting the text, he imposed upon himself the singular restriction of not inserting any variant reading which had not already been printed in some preceding edition of the Greek text. From this rule, however, he deviated in the case of the
Apocalypse Apocalypse () is a literary genre originating in Judaism in the centuries following the Babylonian exile (597–587 BCE) but persisting in Christianity and Islam. In apocalypse, a supernatural being reveals cosmic mysteries or the future to a ...
, where, owing to the corrupt state of the text, he felt himself at liberty to introduce certain readings on manuscript authority. In the lower margin of the page he inserted a selection of various readings, the relative importance of which he denoted by the first five letters of the Greek alphabet in the following manner: α was employed to denote the reading which in his judgment was the true one, although he did not venture to place it in the text; β, a reading better than that in the text; γ, one equal to the textual reading; and δ, readings inferior to those in the text.
Robert Estienne Robert I Estienne (; 15037 September 1559), known as ''Robertus Stephanus'' in Latin and sometimes referred to as ''Robert Stephens'', was a 16th-century printer in Paris. He was the proprietor of the Estienne print shop after the death of his f ...
's division into verses was retained in the inner margin, but the text was divided into paragraphs. The text was followed by a critical apparatus, the first part of which consisted of an introduction to the criticism of the
New Testament The New Testament (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus, as well as events relating to Christianity in the 1st century, first-century Christianit ...
, in the thirty-fourth section of which he laid down and explained his celebrated canon, '' Proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua'' (The difficult reading is to be preferred to that which is easy), the soundness of which, as a general principle, has been recognized by succeeding critics. The second part of the critical apparatus was devoted to a consideration of the various readings, and here Bengel adopted the plan of stating the evidence both against and in favor of a particular reading, thus placing before the reader the materials for forming a judgment. Bengel was the first definitely to propound the theory of families or
recension Recension is the practice of editing or revising a text based on critical analysis. When referring to manuscripts, this may be a revision by another author. The term is derived from the Latin ("review, analysis"). In textual criticism (as is the ...
s of manuscripts. His investigations had led him to see that a certain affinity or resemblance existed amongst many of the authorities for the Greek text manuscripts, versions, and ecclesiastical writers: for example, if a peculiar reading was found in one of these, it was generally also found in the other members of the same class; and this general relationship seemed to point ultimately to a common origin for all the authorities which presented such peculiarities. Although disposed at first to divide the various documents into three classes, he finally adopted a classification into two: the
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n or older family of documents, and the Asiatic, or more recent class, to which he attached only a subordinate value. The theory was afterwards adopted by J.S. Semler and J.J. Griesbach, and worked up into an elaborate system by the latter critic. Bengel's labors on the text of the Greek Testament were received with great disfavour in many quarters. Like Brian Walton and John Mill before him, he had to encounter the opposition of those who believed that the certainty of the word of God was endangered by the importance attached to the various readings. JJ Wetstein, on the other hand, accused him of excessive caution in not making freer use of his critical materials. In answer to these strictures, Bengel published a ''Defence of the Greek Text of His New Testament'', which he prefixed to his ''Harmony of the Four Gospels'', published in 1736, and which contained an answer to the complaints, especially of Wetstein, which had been made against him. The text of Bengel long enjoyed a high reputation among scholars, and was frequently reprinted. An enlarged edition of the critical apparatus was published by Philip David Burk in 1763.


''Gnomon Novi Testamenti''

The other great work of Bengel, and that on which his reputation as an exegete is mainly based, is his ''Gnomon Novi Testamenti'', or ''Exegetical Annotations on the New Testament'', published in 1742. It was the fruit of twenty years labor, and exhibits with a brevity of expression, which, it has been said, condenses more matter into a line than can be extracted from pages of other writers, the results of his study. He modestly entitled his work a ''
Gnomon A gnomon (; ) is the part of a sundial that casts a shadow. The term is used for a variety of purposes in mathematics and other fields, typically to measure directions, position, or time. History A painted stick dating from 2300 BC that was ...
'' or index, his object being rather to guide the reader to ascertain the meaning for himself, than to save him from the trouble of personal investigation. The principles of interpretation on which he proceeded were, to import nothing into Scripture, but to draw out of it everything that it really contained, in conformity with grammatico-historical rules not to be hampered by dogmatical considerations; and not to be influenced by the symbolical books. Bengel's hope that the ''Gnomon'' would help to rekindle a fresh interest in the study of the New Testament was fully realized. It has passed through many editions, has been translated into
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
and into English (by Charlton T. Lewis and
Marvin Vincent Marvin Richardson Vincent (Poughkeepsie, New York, 11 September 1834 – Forest Hills, New York, 18 August 1922) was a Presbyterian minister, best known for his ''Word Studies in the New Testament''. From 1888, he was professor of New Testament ex ...
in 1860), and is still valued by expositors of the New Testament.
Methodist Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a Protestant Christianity, Christian Christian tradition, tradition whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's brother ...
founder
John Wesley John Wesley ( ; 2 March 1791) was an English cleric, Christian theology, theologian, and Evangelism, evangelist who was a principal leader of a Christian revival, revival movement within the Church of England known as Methodism. The societies ...
made great use of it in compiling his ''Explanatory Notes upon the New Testament'' (1755), despite an initial inclination towards "consulting none but the inspired writers". Besides the two works already described, Bengel was the editor or author of many others, classical, patristic, ecclesiastical and expository. The more important are: ''Ordo Temporum'', a treatise on the chronology of Scripture, in which he enters upon speculations regarding the end of the world, and an ''Exposition of the
Apocalypse Apocalypse () is a literary genre originating in Judaism in the centuries following the Babylonian exile (597–587 BCE) but persisting in Christianity and Islam. In apocalypse, a supernatural being reveals cosmic mysteries or the future to a ...
'' which enjoyed for a time great popularity in Germany, and was translated into several languages. His fame was such that almost 200 years later,
Hermann Hesse Hermann Karl Hesse (; 2 July 1877 – 9 August 1962) was a Germans, German-Swiss people, Swiss poet and novelist, and the 1946 Nobel Prize in Literature laureate. His interest in Eastern philosophy, Eastern religious, spiritual, and philosophic ...
has the hero of
The Glass Bead Game ''The Glass Bead Game'' (, ) is the last full-length novel by the German author Hermann Hesse. It was begun in 1931 in Switzerland, where it was published in 1943 after being rejected for publication in Germany due to Hesse's anti-Fascist views. ...
discuss Bengel's writings.


Chiliastic views

Bengel’s meticulous study of the Bible led him to believe that dates and time periods were related, all the way through from Genesis to Revelation, bringing him to the conclusion that June 18, 1836 would witness the start of the Millennium, to include the fall of the Antichrist, which he believed to be the Roman Catholic Church, the conversion of the Jews, the reign of Christ for 1000 years as promised in Revelation 20, and the final judgement. Bengel’s calculations regarding a date for the return of Christ and the end-times influenced not only his contemporary,
John Wesley John Wesley ( ; 2 March 1791) was an English cleric, Christian theology, theologian, and Evangelism, evangelist who was a principal leader of a Christian revival, revival movement within the Church of England known as Methodism. The societies ...
, but also
Johann Heinrich Jung-Stilling Johann Heinrich Jung (12 September 1740, in Hilchenbach, Grund – 2 April 1817, in Karlsruhe), better known by his assumed name Heinrich Stilling, was a German author. He is often called by both surnames as "Jung-Stilling". Life He was born in ...
, whose inclusion of Bengel’s date into his famous novel, ''Das Heimweh'' (Homesickness or Nostalgia) inspired many German Pietists at the time to emigrate towards the east, where they sought safety until Christ’s return. The great German theologian, inventor and astronomer,
Philipp Matthäus Hahn Philipp Matthäus Hahn (25 November 1739 in Scharnhausen (today part of Ostfildern), Duchy of Württemberg – 2 May 1790 in Echterdingen (today part of Leinfelden-Echterdingen)) was a German pastor, astronomer and inventor. In about 1763 he ...
(1739 - 1790), constructed an astronomical clock inspired by Bengel’s eschatological calculations, and his granddaughter, Pauline Beate, was to marry Christoph Hoffmann, the founder of the Adventist group, the German Templers. Bengel’s date for the
Second Coming The Second Coming (sometimes called the Second Advent or the Parousia) is the Christianity, Christian and Islam, Islamic belief that Jesus, Jesus Christ will return to Earth after his Ascension of Jesus, ascension to Heaven (Christianity), Heav ...
and the final judgement were largely unknown by the English speaking Adventists during the early 19th century, partly due to the fact that he wrote in Latin, which was translated into German, and partly overshadowed by the popular writings of William Miller and his projected date of 1844.


References

*


Further reading

*Oskar Wächter, ''J. A. Bengels Lebensabriss'' * John C. F. Burk, ed., ''A memoir of the life and writings of John Albert Bengel'' (), translated into English by Rev. R. F. Walker (London, 1837 and 1842) *
Herzog (; feminine ; masculine plural ; feminine plural ) is a German hereditary title held by one who rules a territorial duchy, exercises feudal authority over an estate called a duchy, or possesses a right by law or tradition to be referred to ...
-Hauck, '' Realencyklopädie'' * E. Nestle, ''Bengel als Gelehrter'' (1893) * Werner Raupp: "Bengel, Johann Albrecht", in: ''Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon'' (BBKL), vol. 22, Nordhausen: Bautz 2003 (), kol. 84–110 (with detailed bibliography). * Werner Raupp: "Bengel, Johann Albrecht (1687–1752)", in: Heiner F. Klemme, Manfred Kuehn (Hrsg.), The Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century German Philosophers, vol. 1. London/New York 2010, p. 92–95.


External links


Gnomon Novi Testamenti Vol. 1.
(English translation, covering Matthew and Mark.)
Gnomon Novi Testamenti Vol. 2.
(English translation, covering Luke, John, and Acts.)
Gnomon Novi Testamenti Vol. 3.
(English translation, covering Romans, I Corinthians, and II Corinthians.)
Gnomon Novi Testamenti Vol. 4.
(English translation, covering Galatians through Hebrews.)
Gnomon Novi Testamenti Vol. 5.
(English translation, covering the Catholic Epistles and Revelation.)
Novum Testamentum Graecum, 1734
(Greek text with Latin introduction)
Exposition of the Apocalypse
(English translation)
A Memoir of the Life and Writings of John Albert Bengel
(English translation) * {{DEFAULTSORT:Bengel, Johann Albrecht 1687 births 1752 deaths 18th-century apocalypticists 18th-century German Protestant theologians 18th-century German male writers Doctors of Divinity Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg German biblical scholars German Lutheran theologians German male non-fiction writers People from the Duchy of Württemberg People from Winnenden Textual scholarship University of Tübingen alumni Lutheran biblical scholars