Jews In Hong Kong
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The history of the Jews in Hong Kong starts when
Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
were among the first settlers after
Hong Kong Hong Kong)., Legally Hong Kong, China in international treaties and organizations. is a special administrative region of China. With 7.5 million residents in a territory, Hong Kong is the fourth most densely populated region in the wor ...
became a
British colony A Crown colony or royal colony was a colony governed by England, and then Great Britain or the United Kingdom within the English and later British Empire. There was usually a governor to represent the Crown, appointed by the British monarch on ...
in 1841. The first Jews arrived in Hong Kong from various parts of the
British Empire The British Empire comprised the dominions, Crown colony, colonies, protectorates, League of Nations mandate, mandates, and other Dependent territory, territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It bega ...
as merchants and colonial officials. Among the first wave, the
Baghdadi Jews Baghdadi Jews (; ) or Iraqi Jews are historic terms for the former communities of Jewish migrants and their descendants from Baghdad and elsewhere in the Middle East. They settled primarily in the ports and along the trade routes around the In ...
stood out especially, including representatives of the influential families of Sassoon and Kadoorie. The construction of the
Ohel Leah Synagogue The Ohel Leah Synagogue () is a Modern Orthodox Jewish congregation and synagogue, located at the junction of Robinson Road and Castle Road, in the Mid Levels on Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong. Overview Together with the adjacent Jewish R ...
in 1901 marked the beginning of a fully fledged religious life for the city's local Jews. Hong Kong's Jewish community is able to freely practice most of their cultural and religious traditions, including holding
Shabbat Shabbat (, , or ; , , ) or the Sabbath (), also called Shabbos (, ) by Ashkenazi Hebrew, Ashkenazim, is Judaism's day of rest on the seventh day of the seven-day week, week—i.e., Friday prayer, Friday–Saturday. On this day, religious Jews ...
meals and celebrating the main
Jewish holidays Jewish holidays, also known as Jewish festivals or ''Yamim Tovim'' (, or singular , in transliterated Hebrew []), are holidays observed by Jews throughout the Hebrew calendar.This article focuses on practices of mainstream Rabbinic Judaism. ...
. The city currently has four active synagogues, three schools and a Jewish cemetery. Jews never constituted a large community in Hong Kong, only numbering a few hundred prior to World War II. Nevertheless, many influential Jews have left their mark on the city. Among them are:
Matthew Nathan Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Matthew Nathan (3 January 1862 – 18 April 1939) was a British soldier and colonial administrator, who variously served as the governor of Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Hong Kong, Natal and Queensland. He was Under-Secre ...
, the first and only Jewish governor of Hong Kong, who established the Guangzhou–Kowloon through train; the members of the Kadoorie family, who founded the China Light and Power Company and
Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels Limited (HSH) is the holding company of a hotel group. It is engaged in the ownership, development and management of The Peninsula Hotels; commercial and residential properties in Asia, the United States and Europe ...
; and the members of the Sassoon family, the benefactors of the Jewish cemetery and the Ohel Leah synagogue. As it is based in a major commercial centre, much of Hong Kong's Jewish community consists of non-permanent residents—largely expatriates from countries with much larger Jewish communities such as
Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...
, the United States, France, and other nations. , Hong Kong has around 5,000 Jewish residents belonging to different
denominations of Judaism Jewish religious movements, sometimes called " denominations", include diverse groups within Judaism which have developed among Jews from ancient times. Samaritans are also considered ethnic Jews by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, although they ar ...
.


History


19th century

Jews were one of the first settlers in Hong Kong after it became a British colony in 1841. From 1842,
Baghdadi Jews Baghdadi Jews (; ) or Iraqi Jews are historic terms for the former communities of Jewish migrants and their descendants from Baghdad and elsewhere in the Middle East. They settled primarily in the ports and along the trade routes around the In ...
from India, the Middle East, southern China, and a smaller population of Sephardim and Ashkenazim from Britain, Europe, India and other places, began immigrating to Hong Kong. The first settler was the Baghdadi merchant
Elias David Sassoon Elias David Sassoon (27 March 1820 – 21 March 1880) was an Indian Baghdadi Jewish merchant. He was the son of David Sassoon and a member of the Sassoon family. Sassoon earned an immense fortune alongside his family and he was the founder of ...
(1820–1880), son of the powerful Mumbai businessman David Sassoon (1792–1864) who opened an office in Canton (
Guangzhou Guangzhou, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Canton or Kwangchow, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Guangdong Provinces of China, province in South China, southern China. Located on the Pearl River about nor ...
) in 1844. This indicated the interest of the trading house David Sassoon, Sons & Co. in the Chinese market. David Sassoon, Sons & Co. opened a branch in Hong Kong in 1857, after moving their operations from Canton to Hong Kong, and E. D. Sassoon & Co. opened its own branch in 1867. The opening of two Sassoon-owned businesses in Hong Kong resulted in increased migration of Baghdadis to Hong Kong. A permanent Jewish community formed in Hong Kong in the 1850s. The social life of the community revolved around the homes of the wealthy Baghdadi families of Sassoon and Kadoorie, another family of Baghdad Jews, whose interests extended far beyond the colony. These families hired mainly Jewish employees in their trading firms, which encouraged the influx of new Baghdadi and Mumbai Jews to Hong Kong. In 1855, a
Jewish cemetery A Jewish cemetery ( ''beit almin'' or ''beit kvarot'') is a cemetery where Jews are buried in keeping with Halakha, Jewish tradition. Cemeteries are referred to in several different ways in Hebrew, including ''beit kevarot'' (house of s ...
was established in the Happy Valley area, after one of David Sassoon's sons, Reuben Sassoon asked for a 999-year lease from the Hong Kong government. The first synagogue was opened by the Sassoons in 1870 in one of the
tenement house A tenement is a type of building shared by multiple dwellings, typically with flats or apartments on each floor and with shared entrance stairway access. They are common on the British Isles, particularly in Scotland. In the medieval Old Town, i ...
s on Hollywood Road, but in 1882 it was replaced by a new synagogue. In 1884, David Sassoon's grandson, Meyer Elias Sassoon, together with the latter's brother, Edward Elias Sassoon and their uncle, Frederick David Sassoon, assumed the role of trustees. The synagogue was named ''Ohel Leah'' in honour of Leah Elias Sassoon, Edward and Meyer's mother. In the 1880s, a wave of
Ashkenazi Jews Ashkenazi Jews ( ; also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim) form a distinct subgroup of the Jewish diaspora, that emerged in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium CE. They traditionally speak Yiddish, a language ...
who fled the pogroms in Russia and anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe settled in Hong Kong. The already established Baghdadi traders helped Ashkenazim start small businesses in Hong Kong after learning about their struggles from Jewish publications. Wealthy Sephardim distanced themselves from the predominantly poor Ashkenazi. The two communities did not pray together and buried the dead in different parts of the cemetery. Ashkenazim were forced to settle in poor neighbourhoods and
boarding house A boarding house is a house (frequently a family home) in which lodging, lodgers renting, rent one or more rooms on a nightly basis and sometimes for extended periods of weeks, months, or years. The common parts of the house are maintained, and ...
s, work in bars and clubs with a dubious reputation, and some women worked in prostitution. As the records of the Jewish community were destroyed during
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, information on the historical numbers of Hong Kong Jews is incomplete. According to an unidentified Jewish encyclopaedia, there were 24 Sephardim and 17 Ashkenazim in the city in 1872. In 1876, there were 36 Sephardim and ten Ashkenazim. The numbers had risen to 49 Sephardim and 22 Ashkenazim by 1881. In 1882, there were about 60 Sephardic Jewish residents in Hong Kong. By 1897, the Jewish community consisted of 52 men, 25 women, 26 girls and 14 boys. In the second half of the 19th century, Elias David Sassoon was the most influential figure in the Hong Kong Jewish community. He led the operations of the David Sassoon & Co. trading house in China and Japan, controlled the shipments of Indian opium, as well as the company's cargo transportation between Mumbai,
Kolkata Kolkata, also known as Calcutta ( its official name until 2001), is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of West Bengal. It lies on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River, west of the border with Bangladesh. It is the primary ...
, Hong Kong, Canton,
Shanghai Shanghai, Shanghainese: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: is a direct-administered municipality and the most populous urban area in China. The city is located on the Chinese shoreline on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the ...
,
Nagasaki , officially , is the capital and the largest Cities of Japan, city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan. Founded by the Portuguese, the port of Portuguese_Nagasaki, Nagasaki became the sole Nanban trade, port used for tr ...
and
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. With Sassoon's donations, a synagogue and the Sailors' House, one of the first charitable institutions, were built in Hong Kong. In 1865, the Sassoons supported the formation of
the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited (), commonly abbreviated as HSBC and formerly known as HongkongBank (; styled ''Wayfoong'' by the bank), is the Hong Kong–based Asia-Pacific subsidiary of the HSBC banking group, for whi ...
, and in the early 1870s David Sassoon & Co. took first place in the supply of opium from Hong Kong to China, overtaking its main competitor, Jardine Matheson & Co. In October 1879, the company suffered a disaster—its coal warehouses in the port of Hong Kong burned down and in March 1880, Elias Sassoon died in
Colombo Colombo, ( ; , ; , ), is the executive and judicial capital and largest city of Sri Lanka by population. The Colombo metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of 5.6 million, and 752,993 within the municipal limits. It is the ...
. Another prominent member of the Sassoon family in Hong Kong was
Frederick David Sassoon Frederick David Sassoon (1 May 1853 – 4 May 1917) was an India-born Anglo-Jewish merchant and banker in Hong Kong and China. Early life Sassoon was born in Bombay, British India on 1 May 1853, Frederick David Sassoon was the eighth son of D ...
(1853–1917). Initially, he helped his older brother Elias Sassoon and after his death, he headed the family business in Hong Kong and oversaw affairs throughout the
Far East The Far East is the geographical region that encompasses the easternmost portion of the Asian continent, including North Asia, North, East Asia, East and Southeast Asia. South Asia is sometimes also included in the definition of the term. In mod ...
. In addition, in 1878–1879 and 1885–1886, he was chairman of the board of directors of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. From 1884 to 1887 he was a member of the
Legislative Council of Hong Kong The Legislative Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, colloquially known as LegCo, is the Unicameralism, unicameral legislature of Hong Kong. It sits under People's Republic of China, China's "one country, two systems" c ...
as a representative of the justice of the peace. After moving to the UK, he was chairman of David Sassoon & Co. in London and director of the
Imperial Bank of Persia The Imperial Bank of Persia () was a British bank that operated as the central bank and bank of issue in Iran (formerly known as Name of Iran, Persia until 1935) between 1889 and 1929. It was established in 1885 with a concession from the Persian ...
. In addition to Frederick, his elder brother Arthur (Abraham) David Sassoon (1840–1912) was also on the board of directors of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. Among the wealthy members of the Jewish community in Hong Kong, there was also the Dutch Jew Charles Henri Bosman (1839–1892). He was the head of the Bosman and Co. trading house, co-owner of the
Hongkong Hotel The Hongkong Hotel was Hong Kong's first luxury hotel modelled after sumptuous London hotels. It opened on Queen's Road and Pedder Street in 1868, later expanding into the Victoria Harbour waterfront of Victoria City in 1893. History The ori ...
, and a director of the Hong Kong and Whampoa Dock, which was founded in 1863 by Scottish businessman Thomas Sutherland. By 1869, Charles Bosman was the Dutch consul in Hong Kong and ran his own marine insurance company, one of whose important clients was the Jardine Matheson & Co. Later, Charles Bosman moved to Great Britain and received British citizenship in either 1888 or 1889. He died in London in 1892. By the end of the 19th century, one of the richest people in Hong Kong was the son of Charles Bosman, Robert Hotung Bosman, who was able to compete with the owners of the leading British trading houses in the colony due to his wealth and influence. Along with the Sassoons and the Bosmans, Emanuel Raphael Belilios (1837–1905) also stood out among the Jews of Hong Kong. Arriving in Hong Kong in 1862, he became an exchange broker in the colony. He quickly became wealthy after opening his firm E.R. Belilios which traded opium between India and China. He had become a significant landowner by the 1880s. He headed the Hongkong Hotel Company and was also the chairman of the board of directors of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, and a member of the Hong Kong Legislative Council. His increasing prestige among the Jewish community and his goal to be the new head of the Jewish community by replacing Sassoons, who at the time were considered the leaders of Hong Kong's Sephardic community, led to a dispute with the Sassoons. The dispute started with Belilios wanting to build a new synagogue in the city. He then bought a piece of land on Kennedy Road. The other members of the Sephardic community tried to buy back the land but Belilios refused to give it up. In 1897, David Aaron Gubbay (Sassoons' family friend), Abraham Jacob Raymond (manager of E.D. Sassoon & Co.) and Abraham Jacob David (partner in E.D. Sassoon & Co.) took Belilios to court, arguing that Belilios had bought the land on behalf of the Jewish community and thus was obligated to return it. On 12 February 1898, Belilios won the case and the court asserted that Belilios had not bought the land on behalf of the Jewish community. However, the Jews of Hong Kong were still against Belilios' plan and it became clear that the community was loyal to the Sassoons. Soon after this, Belilios started to spend more time in London, possibly because of the failure of his plan.


First half of the 20th century

By the beginning of the 20th century, 165 Jews officially lived in Hong Kong. The heyday of the Jewish community of Hong Kong came under the rule of Governor
Matthew Nathan Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Matthew Nathan (3 January 1862 – 18 April 1939) was a British soldier and colonial administrator, who variously served as the governor of Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Hong Kong, Natal and Queensland. He was Under-Secre ...
(1904–1907)—the only Jewish governor of the colony. Under his governance, the Jewish cemetery was expanded and the construction of the railway between Kowloon and Canton began. The main street of Kowloon was named
Nathan Road Nathan Road () is the main thoroughfare in Kowloon, Hong Kong, aligned south–north from Tsim Sha Tsui to Sham Shui Po. It is lined with shops and restaurants and throngs with visitors, and was known in the post–World War II years as the Gol ...
in his honour. From the early 1920s to the mid-1930s, there was an outflow of Jewish businessmen to the rapidly developing Shanghai and the number of the Jewish community dropped below 100 people. As before, the Sephardim predominated, but due to the influx of refugees from Eastern Europe, the balance began to change in favour of the Ashkenazim. In the first half of the 20th century, the brothers Jacob Elias Sassoon and Edward Elias Sassoon (1853–1924), along with their relative Edward Shellim (1869–1928), were the most influential figures in the Jewish community of Hong Kong. Shellim, who was a nephew of Elias David Sassoon, started to work as a manager in the Hong Kong branch of David Sassoon & Co., and later became a chairman of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation from 1912 to 1913, as well as the director of the Hong Kong Tramways,
Hongkong Land Hongkong Land (HKL) is a property investment, management and development group with commercial and residential property interests across Asia. It owns and manages some 850,000 sq. m. of office and retail property in Asia, principally in Hong K ...
and Hong Kong and Kowloon Wharf and Godown Company. He was also a member of advisory committees of China Sugar Companies Refining, Hong Kong Fire Insurance and Canton Insurance Society. In addition to his commercial activities, Shellim was also involved in public affairs as a justice of the peace, a member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong from 1913 to 1918, as well as a member of the committees of the
Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce The Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce (HKGCC; zh, t=香港總商會) was founded on 29 May 1861, and is the oldest and one of the largest business organizations in Hong Kong. It has around 4,000 corporate members, who combined employ aroun ...
, House of Sailors, head of the financial committee of
Alice Ho Miu Ling Nethersole Hospital Alice Ho Miu Ling Nethersole Hospital (AHNH) is an acute district general hospital managed under the New Territories East Cluster of the Hospital Authority in Hong Kong. Established by the former London Missionary Society in 1887, it was the fir ...
, and the council of the Ohel Leah Synagogue and
Hong Kong University The University of Hong Kong (HKU) is a public research university in Pokfulam, Hong Kong. It was founded in 1887 as the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese by the London Missionary Society and formally established as the University of ...
Council. Shellim died on 8 December 1928. The Kadoorie family successfully competed with the Sassoons. In the early twentieth century, a member of the Kadoorie family, Eleazer Silas (1867–1944) was becoming the new leader of Hong Kong's Jewish community as the Sassoons' focus shifted to Shanghai and Britain. He changed his name to Eleazer Silas Kelly and later Sir Elly in Hong Kong to appease the British elite. At the height of his power, he, along with his brother
Ellis Ellis is a surname of Welsh and English origin. Retrieved 21 January 2014 An independent French origin of the surname is said to derive from the phrase fleur-de-lis. It has also been noted to be a Jewish surname. People with the surname include ...
(1865–1922) controlled stakes in the China Light and Power Company, the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the
Star Ferry The Star Ferry () is a passenger ferry service operator and tourist attraction in Hong Kong. Its principal routes carry passengers across Victoria Harbour, between Hong Kong Island and Kowloon. The service is operated by the Star Ferry Com ...
, textile mills and rubber plantations, and owned extensive real estate and the Hongkong Hotel Company (today known as
Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels Limited (HSH) is the holding company of a hotel group. It is engaged in the ownership, development and management of The Peninsula Hotels; commercial and residential properties in Asia, the United States and Europe ...
). In 1928, Elly Kadoorie opened the most prestigious hotel in the colony near Kowloon Station—the six-story Peninsula Hotel. In 1905, he established a social club near the Ohel Leah synagogue. The club allowed the Sephardim and Ashkenazim to meet in a more inclusive space. From 1937, Jewish refugees (mostly wealthy Jews with British or American passports) from Shanghai,
Tianjin Tianjin is a direct-administered municipality in North China, northern China on the shore of the Bohai Sea. It is one of the National Central City, nine national central cities, with a total population of 13,866,009 inhabitants at the time of the ...
and
Harbin Harbin, ; zh, , s=哈尔滨, t=哈爾濱, p=Hā'ěrbīn; IPA: . is the capital of Heilongjiang, China. It is the largest city of Heilongjiang, as well as being the city with the second-largest urban area, urban population (after Shenyang, Lia ...
, fled the hardships of the Japanese occupation and began to flock to Hong Kong, along with some Jews from Europe who fled
Nazism Nazism (), formally named National Socialism (NS; , ), is the far-right totalitarian socio-political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Germany. During Hitler's rise to power, it was fre ...
. The composition of the newcomers was quite diverse; among this wave of refugees, there were Baghdadi,
Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...
,
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
,
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,
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and
Czech Jews The history of the Jews in the Czech lands, historically the Lands of the Bohemian Crown, including the modern Czech Republic (i.e. Bohemia, Moravia, and the southeast or Czech Silesia), goes back at least 1100 years. There is evidence that ...
. The Hong Kong Society of Jewish Refugees was created to accommodate them.


Japanese occupation

Before the Japanese
attack on Pearl Harbor The attack on Pearl HarborAlso known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Empire of Japan on the United States Pacific Fleet at Naval Station Pearl Harbor, its naval base at Pearl Harbor on Oahu, Territory of ...
, there were still some contacts between the
Shanghai Ghetto The Shanghai Ghetto, formally known as the Restricted Sector for Stateless Refugees, was an area of approximately in the Hongkou district of Japanese-occupied Shanghai (the ghetto was located in the southern Hongkou and southwestern Yangpu ...
and Hong Kong. But after the attack, the wealthy Baghdadi Jews of Shanghai—many of whom had British citizenship—were
interned Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without Criminal charge, charges or Indictment, intent to file charges. The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects ...
. In June 1940, the British authorities abruptly announced the evacuation of women and children off the island to Australia due to the threat of a Japanese invasion. The evacuations quickly turned into a highly contentious matter and became riddled with racial discrimination. When the women of Hong Kong wanted to leave, they learned only people with a "pure" British ancestry, as the Australian government requested, were allowed to leave. Nevertheless, some non-European women managed to board the evacuation ships. However, they were again separated at a stopover in
Manila Manila, officially the City of Manila, is the Capital of the Philippines, capital and second-most populous city of the Philippines after Quezon City, with a population of 1,846,513 people in 2020. Located on the eastern shore of Manila Bay on ...
and sent back to Hong Kong. According to Jewish eyewitnesses of the time: "The ships were leaving half empty and government maintained its silence". On 7 December 1941, the Japanese army invaded Hong Kong and the city surrendered on 25 December. Allied nationals, including many members of the Jewish community, were sent to the civilian
prisoner-of-war camps A prisoner of war (POW) is a person held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold prisoners of war for a ...
in
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(where, for example,
Morris Abraham Cohen Morris Abraham Cohen (born Moszek Abram Miączyn; 3 August 1887 – 7 September 1970), better known as Two-Gun Cohen, was a Polish-born British and Canadian adventurer of Jewish origin who became aide-de-camp to Sun Yat-sen and a major-gener ...
and Elly Kadoorie's families were imprisoned), while those who fought with the military in defence of Hong Kong, were imprisoned in the military camp at
Sham Shui Po Sham Shui Po () is an area of Kowloon, Hong Kong, situated in the northwestern part of the Kowloon Peninsula, north of Tai Kok Tsui, east of Cheung Sha Wan and south of Shek Kip Mei (). It is located in and is the namesake of the Sham Shui ...
. Inside the camps, some wealthy Jews managed to get certain camp privileges. For example, one wealthy Jewish family in Stanley had one of the best rooms in the camp and later managed to get repatriated to Shanghai. The camps were also full of negative Jewish stereotypes. The Jews were often associated with dishonest gains and the black market. During the Japanese occupation, the Ohel Leah Synagogue was used as a warehouse and the Jewish Club was looted. After the war, some of the local Jews who had managed to escape Hong Kong, returned; in 1949, the previously destroyed Jewish Club was restored. Another wave of Jewish refugees followed from Europe through the ports of Mumbai,
Singapore Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia. The country's territory comprises one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet. It is about one degree ...
and Hong Kong to Shanghai, where, after the Japanese occupation, visas were still not required for Europeans—in contrast to the Jewish refugees who the British colonial authorities did not allow to disembark in their ports.


Second half of the 20th century

In the second half of the 20th century, the most prominent representatives of the Jewish community in Hong Kong were Lawrence Kadoorie (1899–1993) and Horace Kadoorie (1902–1995)—the sons of Elly Kadoorie, partners in the family business and well-known philanthropists. After the war, they revived the China Light and Power Company and The Peninsula Hotel and formed Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels. In addition, the brothers became shareholders of textile enterprises, the Star Ferry company and the
Peak Tram The Peak Tram is a funicular railway in Hong Kong, which carries both tourists and residents to the upper levels of Hong Kong Island. Running from Garden Road Admiralty to Victoria Peak via the Mid-Levels, it provides the most direct route and o ...
cable car leading to
Victoria Peak Victoria Peak ( zh, t=太平山, j=taai3 ping4 saan1) is a hill on the western half of Hong Kong Island. It is also known as Mount Austin, and locally as The Peak only generally. With an elevation of , it is the tallest hill on Hong Kong Isla ...
. Lawrence also served on the board of directors of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. Lawrence Kadoorie was a member of the Legislative and Executive Councils of Hong Kong in the 1950s. In 1962, Lawrence and Horace Kadoorie received the
Ramon Magsaysay Award The Ramon Magsaysay Award (Filipino language, Filipino: ''Gawad Ramon Magsaysay'') is an annual award established to perpetuate former Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay's example of integrity in governance, courageous service to the people, ...
(the Asian analogue of the Nobel Prize). Lawrence Kadoorie received the
Most Excellent Order of the British Empire The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding valuable service in a wide range of useful activities. It comprises five classes of awards across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two o ...
in 1970, was made a
Knight Bachelor The title of Knight Bachelor is the basic rank granted to a man who has been knighted by the monarch but not inducted as a member of one of the organised Order of chivalry, orders of chivalry; it is a part of the Orders, decorations, and medals ...
in 1974, was made a baron for his philanthropy in 1981, became a life peer, and was the first person born in Hong Kong to become a member of the UK
House of Lords The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the lower house, the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London, England. One of the oldest ext ...
. In 1951, Lawrence and Horace Kadoorie founded the Kadoorie Agricultural Aid Association to provide training and loans for local farmers. The association became a successful business model and revitalized the
New Territories The New Territories (N.T., Traditional Chinese characters, Chinese: ) is one of the three areas of Hong Kong, alongside Hong Kong Island and Kowloon. It makes up 86.2% of Hong Kong's territory, and contains around half of the population of H ...
. Five years later, they established an experimental farm and botanical garden, which eventually developed into one of the world's top 20 botanical gardens. There were 250 Jews in Hong Kong (half Sephardi, half Ashkenazi) in 1954. The number dropped to 230 in 1959 and further to 200 in 1968 (130 Ashkenazi and 70 Sephardi). In 1974, according to the combined lists of the Ohel Leah Synagogue and the Jewish Club, there were about 450 local Jews living in Hong Kong. Five
Torah scroll A Sephardic Torah scroll rolled to the first paragraph of the Shema An Ashkenazi Torah scroll rolled to the Decalogue file:Keneseth Eliyahoo Synagogue, Interior, Tora Cases.jpg">Torah cases at Knesset Eliyahoo Synagogue, Mumbai, India ...
s, belonging to the ancient Jewish community of Kaifeng were discovered in the so-called "Thieves' Market" of Cat Street ( Lascar Row quarter in the
Sheung Wan Sheung Wan (Chinese: 上環) is an List of places in Hong Kong, area in Hong Kong, located in the north-west of Hong Kong Island, between Central, Hong Kong, Central and Sai Ying Pun. Administratively, it is part of the Central and Weste ...
district) in 1974. Today these scrolls are kept in the Ohel Leah Synagogue. In 1984, the Jewish Historical Society of Hong Kong was founded in the Jewish Club to study the history of the Jews in China. A year later, the Israeli Consul General in Hong Kong and Macau was officially appointed (Israel formally established diplomatic relations with China in 1992). In the late 1980s, American Rabbi Samuel Joseph arrived in Hong Kong and became the first head of the United Jewish Congregation of Hong Kong. At that time, the community did not yet have its own premises, and meetings were held at the American Club or the China Fleet Club of the British garrison. In 1989, of the members of Ohel Leah and the Jewish Club, 39% were Americans, 27% were British (including residents of the colony), and 17% were Israelis. In 1991, the Carmel Jewish Day School was founded, located in the east wing of the former British military hospital in the
Mid-Levels Mid-Levels () is an affluent residential area on Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong. It is located between Victoria Peak and Central. Residents are predominantly more affluent Hong Kong locals and expatriate professionals. It has a population ...
. In the first half of the 1990s, 1.5 thousand Jews lived in Hong Kong, of which about 1,000 participated in the life of the community. According to the
Museum of the Jewish People A museum is an institution dedicated to displaying or preserving culturally or scientifically significant objects. Many museums have exhibitions of these objects on public display, and some have private collections that are used by researchers ...
, on the eve of the transfer of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China (1997), around 2,500 Jews lived in the colony, two-thirds of whom were Americans and Israelis; while according to the
American Jewish Year Book The ''American Jewish Year Book'' (AJYB) has been published since . Publication was initiated by the Jewish Publication Society (JPS). In 1908, the American Jewish Committee (AJC) assumed responsibility for compilation and editing while JPS rema ...
, somewhere between 3,000 and 6,000 Jews lived in Hong Kong in 1997. The composition of the Jewish community had also shifted from the predominantly Baghdadi and Western European Jewish population to a predominantly American, British and Israeli mix. According to the 1989 Hong Kong community profile survey, only three per cent of Hong Kong Jews had Cantonese as their primary or native language (mostly Chinese women who converted to Judaism for marriage), while only seven per cent had learned Cantonese as a second language. Nine per cent of the survey respondents spoke Mandarin as a second language. In 1995, a large Jewish community centre was built next to the Ohel Leah Synagogue, replacing the old Jewish Club. The United Jewish Congregation of Hong Kong moved into this centre, after which religious ceremonies began to be held in the auditorium of the centre, and the rabbi of the community settled in a nearby residential complex. From 1996 to October 1998, the Ohel Leah Synagogue underwent major renovation due to significant wear and tear over nearly a century. The restoration project won the Outstanding Project Award of the 2000
UNESCO Asia Pacific Heritage Awards UNESCO Asia Pacific Heritage Awards (since 2000) are given with as the strategic purpose of UNESCO with in the region Asia Pacific. The objective is to motivate the protection of Cultural Heritage sites, which are initiated by any individual organi ...
.


21st century

About 5,000 Jews lived in Hong Kong in 2010, united in seven congregations: the reformist United Jewish Congregation; the Hasidic Chabad with branches in Hong Kong, Kowloon and Lantau; and the Sephardic Orthodox congregations Kehilat Zion (Kowloon) and Shuva Israel (Hong Kong). Most of the Jews are concentrated on
Hong Kong Island Hong Kong Island () is an island in the southern part of Hong Kong. The island, known originally and on road signs simply as "Hong Kong", had a population of 1,289,500 and a population density of , . It is the second largest island in Hong Kon ...
, where the main objects of Jewish public life are situated—mostly in the Mid-Levels, Central and Admiralty districts. However, there are also Jewish residents in the New Territories and Kowloon, mostly in the
Tsim Sha Tsui Tsim Sha Tsui ( zh, c=尖沙咀), often abbreviated as TST, is an list of areas of Hong Kong, area in southern Kowloon, Hong Kong. The area is administratively part of the Yau Tsim Mong District. Tsim Sha Tsui East is a piece of land reclaimed ...
and East Tsim Sha Tsui districts. Immigrants from the US and Canada predominate, although there are also immigrants from Western Europe (Great Britain, France, Spain, Switzerland), Israel, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Expatriates working in Hong Kong include businessmen, managers, skilled professionals, journalists, teachers and professors. Most of the Jews speak Hebrew or English and a very small number of them speak Cantonese or Mandarin. According to the
World Jewish Congress The World Jewish Congress (WJC) is an international federation of Jewish communities and organizations, founded in Geneva, Switzerland, in August 1936. According to its mission statement, the World Jewish Congress's main purpose is to act as ...
, some 2,500 Jews lived in Hong Kong in 2015; while according to the Jewish Historical Society of Hong Kong, the number was closer to 5,000. As of 2019, about 5,000 Jews live in Hong Kong. The most important cluster where the Jews of Hong Kong gather is located on Robinson Road in the Mid-Levels. Built in 1995, the Jewish Community Centre is located here, which includes a library, a Chinese-Jewish archive, a learning centre, a multi-purpose auditorium, an indoor pool, a gym, a kosher meat and dairy restaurant, a cafe and a kosher grocery store. Adjacent to the centre is the historic Ohel Leah Synagogue, with Hong Kong's only
mikveh A mikveh or mikvah (,  ''mikva'ot'', ''mikvot'', or (Ashkenazi Hebrew, Ashkenazic) ''mikves'', lit., "a collection") is a bath used for ritual washing in Judaism#Full-body immersion, ritual immersion in Judaism to achieve Tumah and taharah, ...
. The Consulate General of Israel is located in the second tower of the Admiralty Centre office complex on
Harcourt Road Harcourt Road (Traditional Chinese characters, Chinese: 夏慤道) is a major highway in Admiralty, Hong Kong, Admiralty, Hong Kong, connecting Central, Hong Kong, Central and Wan Chai. It starts at Murray Road and ends at Arsenal Street. The ...
in the Admiralty district. Among the modern significant members of the Jewish community of Hong Kong are: *
Michael Kadoorie Sir Michael David Kadoorie (born 1941) is a Hong Kong billionaire businessman, and the chairman and 18% owner of CLP Group, Hong Kong's largest electricity producer. He also owns 47% of Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels. He is a member of the Ka ...
(the son of Lawrence Kadoorie): chairman and co-owner of CLP Group, Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels and Metrojet airlines, and member of the board of directors of
CK Hutchison Holdings CK Hutchison Holdings Limited () is a Hong Kong–based and Cayman Islands–registered multinational conglomerate corporation. The company was formed in March 2015 through the merger of Cheung Kong Holdings and its main associate company Hutc ...
* Allan Zeman: restaurateur, hotelier and property developer, member of the board of directors of the gambling group
Wynn Resorts Wynn Resorts, Limited is an American publicly traded corporation based in Paradise, Nevada, that is a developer and operator of high-end hotels and casinos. It was founded in 2002 by former Mirage Resorts Chairman and CEO Steve Wynn and is now r ...
, also known as the "father" of Hong Kong's
Lan Kwai Fong Lan Kwai Fong (Traditional Chinese characters, Chinese: 蘭桂坊), often abbreviated as LKF, is a small square of streets in Central, Hong Kong, Central, Hong Kong. The area was dedicated to Hawkers in Hong Kong, hawkers before the Secon ...
entertainment district


Religious life

The Jews in Hong Kong freely practice their religious holidays, including holding Shabbat meals, celebrating the main
Jewish holidays Jewish holidays, also known as Jewish festivals or ''Yamim Tovim'' (, or singular , in transliterated Hebrew []), are holidays observed by Jews throughout the Hebrew calendar.This article focuses on practices of mainstream Rabbinic Judaism. ...
(Yom Kippur, Rosh Hashanah, Hanukkah, Shavuot, Pesach and others), and developing religious educational programs. Hong Kong has four active synagogues (three of which have full-time rabbis), a Jewish school (Carmel School for young children), two Sunday schools (the Ezekiel Abraham School for teenagers and the Shorashim school for children), and a Jewish cemetery in the Happy Valley area. The main synagogue is Ohel Leah, built in 1901–1902. While it is formally aligned to
Modern Orthodox Judaism Modern Orthodox Judaism (also Modern Orthodox or Modern Orthodoxy) is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to Torah Umadda#Synthesis, synthesize Jewish principles of faith, Jewish values and the halakha, observance of Jewish law with t ...
, the synagogue is visited by adherents of Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidism,
Reform Judaism Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism, is a major Jewish religious movements, Jewish denomination that emphasizes the evolving nature of Judaism, the superiority of its Jewish ethics, ethical aspects to its ceremo ...
, and
Conservative Judaism Conservative Judaism, also known as Masorti Judaism, is a Jewish religious movements, Jewish religious movement that regards the authority of Jewish law and tradition as emanating primarily from the assent of the people through the generations ...
. The Jewish Community Centre is home to the United Jewish Congregation of Hong Kong, which caters to about 500 people who belong to heterodox currents of Judaism (reformists, liberals and conservatives). Since its founding in 1988, the congregation has been closely associated with the Jerusalem-based
World Union for Progressive Judaism The World Union for Progressive Judaism (WUPJ) is the international umbrella organization for the various branches of Reform Judaism, Reform, Liberal and Progressive Judaism, as well as the separate Reconstructionist Judaism. The WUPJ is based i ...
and the Australian
Union for Progressive Judaism The Union for Progressive Judaism is an affiliate of the World Union for Progressive Judaism and supports 27 progressive congregations in Australia, New Zealand and Asia. The movement serves about a fifth of the region's affiliated community. The U ...
. The Sephardic congregation Shuva Israel is located in the Fortune House, in Central District. It provides restaurants and offices with
kosher food Kosher foods are foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of '' kashrut'' ( dietary law). The laws of ''kashrut'' apply to food derived from living creatures and kosher foods are restricted to certain types of mammals, birds and fish ...
, conducts worship services, teaches adults and children, and provides other services to residents and tourists. A synagogue, study hall, library, restaurant, and kosher grocery occupy two floors of the community office. In addition, ten families of the congregation have their own preschool and
cheder A ''cheder'' (, lit. 'room'; Yiddish pronunciation: ''khéyder'') is a traditional primary school teaching the basics of Judaism and the Hebrew language. History ''Cheders'' were widely found in Europe before the end of the 18th century. L ...
in the
Pok Fu Lam Pok Fu Lam ( zh, t=薄扶林, links=no, labels=no) or Pokfulam is a residential area on Hong Kong Island, at the western end of the Southern District. It is a valley between Victoria Peak and Mount Kellett, around Telegraph Bay. Pok Fu L ...
area. The Hoover Court building on McDonnell Road in the Mid-Levels is home to the Chabad of Hong Kong office, and on Chatham Road in Tsim Sha Tsui is the Chabad of Kowloon office, opened in 2005 in the Oriental Centre building. The Chabad-Lubavitcher Hasidim are an active but isolated Jewish community in Hong Kong. Arriving in Hong Kong in 1985, the city has become the headquarters for the Chabad-Lubavitcher in Asia. The business complex Wing On Plaza in the Tsim Sha Tsui East area houses the office of the Sephardic community Kehilat Zion, which unites more than 900 people. Founded in 1995 by a Syrian businessman and the Jerusalem Sephardic Center, the Community Synagogue serves the faithful throughout Kowloon. The spiritual leader of Kehilat Zion is also the Chief Rabbi of the entire Sephardic community in Hong Kong. The community manages a library and a kosher restaurant, lectures and seminars, provides kosher food and reserves hotel rooms for those who wish.


Jewish cemetery

The Hong Kong Jewish Cemetery is located in the Happy Valley district. It was founded in 1855 thanks to donations from businessman David Sassoon (formally, the British authorities signed permits for the cemetery only in 1858). The cemetery is surrounded on all sides by high-rise residential buildings; it is accessible along a narrow passage between a Buddhist temple and a school attached to it. This is one of the few Jewish cemeteries in the Far East that have been preserved in their original location. The cemetery is oriented from east to west, and most of the graves are located at the western entrance. The oldest grave is dated 1857. The funeral lists indicate that most of the dead in the early years of the cemetery were men, since at that time it was not customary for travellers to settle in Hong Kong with their families. Sixteen of the oldest graves do not bear the names of those buried there, only identification numbers. Sephardic graves from the late 19th century are grouped in the eastern part of the cemetery, while Ashkenazi graves are grouped in the western, behind the chapel. The chapel itself and other small buildings appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, during the rule of the Jewish governor Matthew Nathan. In 1904, a 75-year lease was signed on a piece of land adjacent to the cemetery, and in 1979 it was extended for another 75 years. The cemetery is dominated by simple graves, although the first tombstones were made in the form of massive granite
sarcophagi A sarcophagus (: sarcophagi or sarcophaguses) is a coffin, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word ''sarcophagus'' comes from the Greek σάρξ ' meaning "flesh", and φ ...
. The Sephardic Belilios family built white marble canopies in the
Ionic style The Ionic order is one of the three canonic orders of classical architecture, the other two being the Doric and the Corinthian. There are two lesser orders: the Tuscan (a plainer Doric), and the rich variant of Corinthian called the composite o ...
over their graves. The Kadoorie and Gubbai families, whose graves are located together, preferred tombstones with narrow polished granite sarcophagi covered with protruding lids. Often, tombstones are decorated with various elements—flowers, foliage, swirls or garlands. One grave has a single broken column, which indicates an untimely death, and another has a photograph on the grave, which was a Russian tradition. The inscriptions are short: only the date of death, sometimes the date of birth, very rarely the place of death. Most of the inscriptions are made in Hebrew and English; inscriptions in Arabic, Russian or Dutch are less common.


Education

Jewish schooling has historically not been very strong in Hong Kong. A 1914 report stated that there were no religious schools in Hong Kong at that time. Another report in 1936 stated that a small school had opened "some time ago", but was closed due to the "lack of interest in parents in sending their children to learn Hebrew". In 1969, the Ezekiel Abraham School was founded as a volunteer-run Sunday school. There had also been no attempts to set up a Jewish day school in Hong Kong due to the small number of Jewish children. However, in the early 1990s, Carmel School became Hong Kong's first Jewish day school with an enrolment of thirty children. A few years after its opening, the school had more than fifty applications for preschool enrollment. , Carmel School Association has three campuses: Holly Rofé Early Learning Centre, Carmel Elementary School, and Elsa High School in Shau Kei Wan, which also has non-Jewish students. Elsa High School includes science laboratories, a library, music, art and design classrooms, a 500-seat auditorium, conference and fitness rooms, and an all-weather artificial turf field. The Jewish Community Centre, located in the Mid-Levels area on Robinson Road, operates the Holly Rofé Early Learning Center. It includes an indoor pool, gym and playgrounds. Carmel Elementary and Preschool is located in the Mid-Levels on Borrett Road on the place of a former British military hospital, which opened in 1907. In 1967, the hospital was moved to Kowloon, and the military turned over the empty buildings to the colonial government. In the early 1990s, the east wing of the former hospital was occupied by the Carmel school, which provided religious and secular education according to the tenets of Modern Orthodox Judaism. The school has a library, music and art classes, computer science and programming classes,
special education Special education (also known as special-needs education, aided education, alternative provision, exceptional student education, special ed., SDC, and SPED) is the practice of educating students in a way that accommodates their individual di ...
classes, an indoor gym, playgrounds and sports grounds, and a public garden. In 1999, the United Jewish Congregation of Hong Kong opened its own religious school, Shorashim School. In 2010, a local branch of the
Israel Boy and Girl Scouts Federation The Israel Boy and Girl Scouts Federation (, ''Hit'ahdut HaTzofim VeHaTzofot BeYisrael'') is Israel's federation of the five Scouting organizations in Israel, sorted by religion in Israel, religious affiliation. Some 90,000 boys and girls belong ...
was opened in Hong Kong.


Culture and sports

The Jewish Community Centre is home to the Jewish Historical Society of Hong Kong, founded in 1984 by Denis and Mary Leventhal and Anita Buxbaum with the participation of Professor S. J. Chan, who studied Kaifeng Jews. The Society searches for, researches and preserves historical materials on Jews and Judaism in Hong Kong and China, holds exhibitions, lectures and seminars, and publishes books and collections of documents. The Library of the Jewish Historical Society is considered one of the best in Asia on the topic of Chinese Jews. In addition, the society holds many unique photographs and documents, as well as audio recordings of interviews with members of the Jewish community. The society also conducts group tours to historical Jewish places in the region. In 1999, Canadian Howard Elias founded the annual Hong Kong Jewish Film Festival, which includes films and documentaries from around the world, dedicated to various Jewish themes. The Hong Kong Jewish Women's Association, founded in the 1940s to help Jewish refugees from Shanghai, continues to play an important role in the community. It annually implements many cultural, social and educational programs, and also collects donations for charitable organisations in Israel and for the local Jewish community. The Israeli Consulate in Hong Kong oversees the Israeli Film Festival, which takes place every three years, as well as the children's and adult football teams of the Maccabi sports association. The Hong Kong Jewish community raises funds for various programs of the Israeli organisation
Keren Hayesod Keren Hayesod – United Israel Appeal (, literally "The Foundation Fund") is an official fundraising organization for Israel with branches in 45 countries. Its work is carried out in accordance with the Keren haYesod Law-5716, passed by the Kne ...
, annually widely celebrates Israel's
Independence Day An independence day is an annual event memorialization, commemorating the anniversary of a nation's independence or Sovereign state, statehood, usually after ceasing to be a group or part of another nation or state, or after the end of a milit ...
and
Yom HaZikaron Yom HaZikaron (), in full, ''Yom HaZikaron LeHalelei Ma'arkhot Yisrael ul'Nifge'ei Pe'ulot HaEivah'' (), is Israel's official day of remembrance for fallen Israeli soldiers and terrorism victims, enacted into Israeli law in 1963. While Yom H ...
, and also holds events in support of non-profit organisations the
Jewish National Fund The Jewish National Fund (JNF; , ''Keren Kayemet LeYisrael''; previously , ''Ha Fund HaLeumi'') is a non-profit organizationProfessor Alon Tal, The Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology, The Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben Gurion ...
and the United Israel Appeal.


Cuisine

Hong Kong's kosher restaurants include Sabra Meat Restaurant and Waterside Dairy Restaurant located in the Jewish Community Centre, Mul Hayam Restaurant run by Kehilat Zion in Kowloon, and Shalom Grill run by Shuva Yisrael in the Central District. Almost all Jewish congregations in Hong Kong provide kosher food delivery services to homes and hotels, and organise banquets and off-site receptions.


Antisemitism

The thesis about the absence of
antisemitism Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...
in Hong Kong is common. No report published prior to World War II mentioned the existence of antisemitism against Hong Kong Jews. In the early colonial period, wealthy Jewish merchants from Britain were traditionally referred to as "white Europeans", identified with the privileged class of the British colony. However, there are cases when even rich merchants from among the Baghdadi Jews were denied membership in the elite Hong Kong Club (founded in 1846), where only British
Anglicans Anglicanism, also known as Episcopalianism in some countries, is a Western Christianity, Western Christian tradition which developed from the practices, liturgy, and identity of the Church of England following the English Reformation, in the ...
were allowed to rest. According to a survey conducted in 1989, 83% of Hong Kongers declared a neutral attitude towards Jews or were ignorant of the life of Jews living in the city, and another 15% of Hong Kongers noted a positive attitude towards them. The standard explanation for these statistics is that the Jewish presence in Hong Kong has always been small, and prominent members of the community have been successful in commerce and philanthropy. Generally, Chinese people do not receive a balanced, in-depth account of Jewish history and culture as part of their education. Most Hong Kong Chinese could not clearly explain the general difference between the State of Israel, the Jews, and Judaism. Because of this, according to historian Jonathan Goldstein, it is difficult to say with certainty that the dominant neutral attitude towards Jews means there is no latent antisemitism. In April 1991, the local Chinese-language newspaper ''Hong Kong Daily News'' published an article titled "The Jews' Deep-Rooted Bad Habits: The Bad Nature of the Jews". The article contained statements such as "Why have these people (the Jews) been cursed by God to wander the world forever?" and "(Jews) are heartless, rich, cruel and ruthless warmongers, a selfish and avaricious race". The article angered the local Jewish community, which sent a letter of protest to the newspaper's office, and the newspaper published a reply stating that the article did not violate editorial policy. While preparing a lawsuit against the newspaper, the Jewish Initiative Group found that there is no article in Hong Kong law prohibiting incitement to racial violence. Some minor anti-semitic incidents have involved immigrants. This became especially noticeable in 1987–1988 against the backdrop of public controversy around a plan for the redevelopment of Jewish Trust property. The controversy concerned the reconstruction of the historical synagogue Ohel Leah and control over this process by the authorities. The dispute gave rise to unsubstantiated accusations in the local English-language press of both the synagogue committee and the Jews in general. For a long time, the only local school with high American educational standards was the Hong Kong International School in the Southern district, owned by the
Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched ...
. Children of American and European Jews who went to this school often faced strict Christian rules (compulsory attendance at the chapel, the study of Christian dogmas) and attempts at
proselytism Proselytism () is the policy of attempting to convert people's religious or political beliefs. Carrying out attempts to instill beliefs can be called proselytization. Proselytism is illegal in some countries. Some draw distinctions between Chris ...
by individual teachers. Jewish residents have reported several anti-semitic manifestations in 2002 and 2003.


See also

* Hong Kong-Israel relations


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* *


External links

* * * * * {{Authority control
Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
Jewish Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...