Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, is the entire corpus of works authored by

rabbis A rabbi (; ) is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as '' semikha''—following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of ...

throughout

Jewish history Jewish history is the history of the Jews, their Jewish peoplehood, nation, Judaism, religion, and Jewish culture, culture, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions and cultures. Jews originated from the Israelites and H ...

. The term typically refers to literature from the Talmudic era (70–640 CE), as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writings. It aligns with the Hebrew term ''Sifrut Chazal'' (), which translates to “literature f oursages” and generally pertains only to the sages (''Chazal'') from the Talmudic period. This more specific sense of "Rabbinic literature"—referring to the

Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of Haskalah#Effects, modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...

Midrash ''Midrash'' (;"midrash"
. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. ; or ''midrashot' ...

im (), and related writings, but hardly ever to later texts—is how the term is generally intended when used in contemporary academic writing. The terms ''mefareshim'' and ''parshanim'' (commentaries and commentators) almost always refer to later, post-Talmudic writers of rabbinic glosses on

Biblical The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) biblical languages ...

and Talmudic texts.

Mishnaic literature

The Midr'she halakha,

Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; , from the verb ''šānā'', "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first written collection of the Jewish oral traditions that are known as the Oral Torah. Having been collected in the 3rd century CE, it is ...

, and

Tosefta The Tosefta ( "supplement, addition") is a compilation of Jewish Oral Law from the late second century, the period of the Mishnah and the Jewish sages known as the '' Tannaim''. Background Jewish teachings of the Tannaitic period were cha ...

(compiled from materials pre-dating the year 200 CE) are the earliest extant works of rabbinic literature, expounding and developing Judaism's

Oral Law An oral law is a code of conduct in use in a given culture, religion or community application, by which a body of rules of human behaviour is transmitted by oral tradition and effectively respected, or the single rule that is orally transmitted. M ...

, as well as ethical teachings. Following these came the two Talmuds: *The

Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud (, often for short) or Palestinian Talmud, also known as the Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century Jewish oral tradition known as the Mishnah. Naming this version of the Talm ...

, *The

Babylonian Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the centerpiece of Jewi ...

, full canonization of all the previous texts . *The

minor tractates The minor tractates (, ''masechtot qetanot'') are essays from the Talmudic period or later dealing with topics about which no formal tractate exists in the Mishnah. They may thus be contrasted to the Tosefta, whose tractates parallel those of the ...

(part of the Babylonian Talmud) The earliest extant material witness to rabbinic literature of any kind is the Tel Rehov inscription dating to the 6th–7th centuries, also the longest Jewish inscription from late antiquity. Meanwhile, the earliest extant Talmudic manuscripts are from the 8th century.

The Midrash

Midrash (; pl. ''Midrashim'') is a Hebrew word referring to a method of reading details into or out of a biblical text. The term ''midrash'' also can refer to a compilation of Midrashic teachings in the form of legal, exegetical, homiletical, or narrative writing, often configured as a commentary on the

Bible The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) originally writt ...

. There are a large number of "classical" Midrashic works spanning a period from Mishnaic to

Geonic ''Geonim'' (; ; also Romanization of Hebrew, transliterated Gaonim, singular Gaon) were the presidents of the two great Talmudic Academies in Babylonia, Babylonian Talmudic Academies of Sura Academy , Sura and Pumbedita Academy , Pumbedita, in t ...

times, often showing evidence of having been worked and reworked from earlier materials and frequently coming to us in multiple variants. A compact list of these works, drawing upon Barry Holtz's ''Back to the Sources'', is given below. The timeline below is approximate because many of the works were composed over a long period, borrowing and collating material from earlier versions; their histories are, therefore, somewhat uncertain and the subject of scholarly debate. In the table, "n.e." designates that the work in question is not extant except in secondary references.

Later works by category

Aggada

* Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva * Ein Yaakov * Legends of the Jews * Midrash HaGadol * Midrash Hashkem * Midrash Rabba * Midrash Shmuel * Midrash Tehillim * Pesikta de-Rav Kahana *

Pesikta Rabbati ''Pesikta Rabbati'' (Aramaic: פסיקתא רבתי ''P'siqta Rabbati'', "The Larger P'siqta") is a collection of aggadic midrash (homilies) on the Pentateuchal and prophetic readings, the special Sabbaths, and so on. It was composed around 8 ...

* Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer *

Seder Olam Rabbah ''Seder Olam Rabbah'' (, "The Great Order of the World") is a 2nd-century CE Hebrew language chronology detailing the dates of biblical events from creation to Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia. It adds no stories beyond what is in the bi ...

* Seder Olam Zutta * Sefer HaAggadah *

Sefer haYashar (midrash) Sefer haYashar () is a medieval Hebrew language, Hebrew ''midrash'', also known as the Toledot Adam and Divrei haYamim heArukh. The Hebrew title "Sefer haYashar" might be translated as the "Book of Righteousness" (or literally "Book of the Strai ...

Smaller midrashim A number of midrashim exist which are smaller in size, and generally later in date, than those dealt with in the articles Midrash Haggadah and Midrash Halakah. Despite their late date, some of these works preserve material from the Apocrypha and P ...

* Tanhuma * Tanna Devei Eliyahu * Tseno Ureno *

Yalkut Shimoni The ''Yalkut Shimoni'' (), or simply ''Yalkut'', is an aggadic compilation on the books of the Hebrew Bible. It is a compilation of older interpretations and explanations of Biblical passages, arranged according to the sequence of those portions ...

Hasidic thought

* '' Keter Shem Tov'' * '' Tzavaat HaRivash'' * ''Toledot Yaakov Yosef'' * ''Ben Porat Yosef'', ''Tzafnat Paneach'', and ''Ketonet Pasim'' * ''Magid Devarav L'Yaakov'' * ''Or Torah'' * ''Menachem Zion'' * ''Meor Einayim'' and ''Yesamach Lev'' * ''Noam Elimelech'' * ''Menorat Zahav'' * ''Avodat Yisrael'' * ''Pri Ha'Aretz'' and ''P'ri Ha'Eitz'' * ''Kedushas Levi'' * '' Tiferes Shlomo'' * ''Bet Aharon'' * ''Yosher Divrei Emes'' * ''Tanya'' (''Likutei Amarim'') * '' Torah Or/Likutei Torah'' * ''Likutei Moharan'' * ''Sippurei Ma'asiyot'' ("Rabbi Nachman's Stories") * ''Sichot HaRan'' * ''Be'er Mayim Hayyim'' * ''Siduro Shel Shabbos'' * ''Avodas HaLevi'' * '' Mei Hashiloach'' * ''Kol Simcha'' * '' Bnei Yissoschar'' * ''Imrei Elimelech'' and ''Divrei Elimelech'' * ''Aish Kodesh'' * '' Sefas Emes'' * '' Imrei Emes'' * '' Shem Mishmuel'' * '' Likkutei Sichos'' * '' Nesivos Sholom'' * ''Darchei Noam''

Hebrew poetry

Biblical poetry The ancient Hebrews identified poetical portions in their sacred texts, as shown by their entitling as "psalms" or as " chants" passages such as Exodus 15:1-19 and Numbers 21:17-20; a song or chant () is, according to the primary meaning of the t ...

* Medieval Hebrew poetry

Jewish liturgy

Piyyut A piyyuṭ (plural piyyuṭim, ; from ) is a Jewish liturgical poem, usually designated to be sung, chanted, or recited during religious services. Most piyyuṭim are in Mishnaic Hebrew or Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, and most follow some p ...

Siddur A siddur ( ''sīddūr'', ; plural siddurim ) is a Jewish prayer book containing a set order of daily prayers. The word comes from the Hebrew root , meaning 'order.' Other terms for prayer books are ''tefillot'' () among Sephardi Jews, ''tef ...

Jewish philosophy

* Chovot HaLevavot * Derech Hashem * Emunah Ubitachon * Emunot v'Dayyot * Kad ha-Kemach * Kuzari * Moreh Nevukhim (Guide for the Perplexed) * Milchamot Hashem (Wars of the Lord) * Nefesh Ha-Chaim * Or Adonai * Perek Chelek *

Philo Philo of Alexandria (; ; ; ), also called , was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt. The only event in Philo's life that can be decisively dated is his representation of the Alexandrian J ...

* Sefer ha-Ikkarim * Sefer ha-Chinuch

Kabbalah

* Etz Chaim * Maggid Mesharim * Pardes Rimonim * Sefer haBahir * Sefer Raziel HaMalakh *

Sefer Yetzirah ''Sefer Yetzirah'' ( ''Sēp̄er Yəṣīrā'', ''Book of Formation'', or ''Book of Creation'') is a work of Jewish mysticism. Early commentaries, such as the ''Kuzari'', treated it as a treatise on mathematical and linguistic theory, as opposed t ...

* Tikunei haZohar * Tomer Devorah *

Zohar The ''Zohar'' (, ''Zōhar'', lit. "Splendor" or "Radiance") is a foundational work of Kabbalistic literature. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah and scriptural interpretations as well as material o ...

Jewish law

Arba'ah Turim ''Arba'ah Turim'' (), often called simply the ''Tur'', is an important Halakha#Codes of Jewish law, Halakhic code composed by Yaakov ben Asher (Cologne, 1270 – Toledo, Spain c. 1340, also referred to as ''Ba'al Ha-Turim''). The four-part stru ...

* Aruch HaShulchan *

Beit Yosef Beit may refer to: *Beit (surname) *Beit baronets *Bet (letter), a letter of the Semitic abjad *A component of Glossary of Arabic toponyms, Arabic placenames and Glossary of Hebrew toponyms, Hebrew placenames, literally meaning 'house' *''Masada: Be ...

* Ben Ish Hai * Chayei Adam and Chochmat Adam * Darkhei Moshe * Halachot Gedolot * Kaf HaChaim * Hilchot HaRif * Kessef Mishneh * Kitzur Shulchan Aruch * Levush Malchut * Minchat Chinuch * Mishnah Berurah *

Mishneh Torah The ''Mishneh Torah'' (), also known as ''Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka'' (), is a code of Rabbinic Jewish religious law (''halakha'') authored by Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon/Rambam). The ''Mishneh Torah'' was compiled between 1170 and 1180 CE ( ...

* Responsa literature * Sefer ha-Chinuch *

Sefer Hamitzvot ''Sefer Hamitzvot'' ("Book of Commandments", ; ) is a work by the 12th-century rabbi, philosopher, and physician, Moses Maimonides. While there are various other works titled similarly, the title "''Sefer Hamitzvot''" without a modifier refers ...

* Sefer Mitzvot Gadol *

Shulchan Aruch The ''Shulhan Arukh'' ( ),, often called "the Code of Jewish Law", is the most widely consulted of the various legal codes in Rabbinic Judaism. It was authored in the city of Safed in what is now Israel by Joseph Karo in 1563 and published in ...

* Shulchan Aruch HaRav * Yalkut Yosef

Musar literature

* Mesillat Yesharim * Orchot Tzaddikim * Sefer Chasidim * Shaarei Teshuva *Yonah_Gerondi#Works, Sefer ha-Yir'ah *Chovot ha-Levavot *Ma'alot ha-Middot *Aharon Kotler, Mishnat R' Aharon *Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler#Michtav me-Eliyahu, Mikhtav me-Eliyahu * Tomer Devorah *Chaim Leib Shmuelevitz#Publications, Sichos Mussar *Pele Yoetz *Kav ha-Yashar *Bahya_ben_Asher#Other_works, Kad HaKemah *Yosef Yozel Horwitz, Madreigat Ha'Adam *Maimonides#Other Judaic and philosophical works, Shemonah Perakim

Later works by historical period

Works of the Geonim

The Geonim are the rabbis of Sura and Pumbeditha in Babylon (650–1250 CE) : *''She'iltoth of Acha'i [Gaon]'' *'' Halachot Gedolot'' *''Halakhot Pesukot, Halachot Pesukot'', by Rav Yehudai Gaon *''Emunoth ve-Deoth'' (Saadia Gaon) *The ''

'' by Amram Gaon *Responsa

Works of the ''Rishonim'' (the "early" rabbinical commentators)

The Rishonim are the rabbis of the early medieval period (1000–1550 CE) *The commentaries on the Torah, such as those by Rashi, Abraham ibn Ezra, and Nahmanides. *Commentaries on the Talmud, principally by Rashi, his grandson Samuel ben Meir and Nissim of Gerona. *Commentaries on the

, such as those composed by Maimonides, Obadiah of Bertinoro, and Nathan ben Abraham I, Nathan ben Abraham *Talmudic novellae (''chiddushim'') by Tosafists, Nahmanides, Nissim of Gerona, Solomon ben Aderet (RaShBA), Yom Tov Asevilli, Yomtov ben Ashbili (Ritva) *Works of ''halakha'' (Asher ben Yechiel, Mordechai ben Hillel) *Codices by Maimonides and Jacob ben Asher, and finally ''Shulkhan Arukh'' *Responsa, e.g., by Solomon ben Aderet (RaShBA) *Kabbalah, Kabbalistic works (such as the

) *Philosophical works (Maimonides, Gersonides, Nahmanides) *Ethical works (Bahya ibn Paquda, Jonah of Gerona)

Works of the ''Acharonim'' (the "later" rabbinical commentators)

The Acharonim are the rabbis from 1550 to the present day. *Important Torah commentaries include ''Keli Yakar'' (Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz), ''Ohr ha-Chayim'' by Chayim ben-Attar, the commentary of Samson Raphael Hirsch, and the commentary of Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin. *Important works of Talmudic novellae include: ''Pene Yehoshua (disambiguation), Pnei Yehoshua'', ''Hafla'ah'', ''Sha'agath Aryei'' *Responsa, e.g., by Moses Sofer, Moshe Feinstein *Works of ''halakha'' and codices, e.g., '' Mishnah Berurah'' by Yisrael Meir Kagan and the ''Yechiel Michel Epstein#Aruch ha-Shulchan, Aruch ha-Shulchan'' by Yechiel Michel Epstein *Ethical and philosophical works: Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, Yisrael Meir Kagan and the Mussar Movement *Hasidic Judaism, Hasidic works (''Kedushath Levi'', ''Sefath Emmeth'', ''Shem mi-Shemuel'') *Philosophical/metaphysical works (the works of the Maharal of Prague, Moshe Chaim Luzzatto and ''Nefesh ha-Chayim'' by Chaim Volozhin, Chaim of Volozhin) *Mystical works *Historical works, e.g., ''Shem ha-Gedolim'' by Chaim Joseph David Azulai.

Mefareshim

''Mefareshim'' is a Hebrew language, Hebrew word meaning "commentators" (or roughly meaning "Exegesis, exegetes"), ''Perushim'' means "commentaries". In Judaism, these words refer to commentaries on the Torah (five books of Moses), Tanakh,

, the responsa literature, or even the siddur (Jewish prayerbook), and more.

Classic Torah and Talmud commentaries

Classic Torah and/or Talmud commentaries have been written by the following individuals: * Geonim ** Saadia Gaon, 10th century Babylon * Rishonim ** Rashi (Shlomo Yitzchaki), 12th century France ** Abraham ibn Ezra ** Nachmanides (Moshe ben Nahman) ** Samuel ben Meir, the Rashbam, 12th century France ** Gersonides, also known as Levi ben Gershom or Ralbag) ** David Kimhi, the Radak, 13th century France ** Joseph ben Isaac Bekhor Shor, 12th century France ** Nissim of Gerona, also known as Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi, or the RaN, 14th century Spain ** Isaac Abarbanel (1437–1508) ** Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno, 16th century Italy * Acharonim ** The Vilna Gaon, also known as Elijah ben Solomon Zalman, 18th century Lithuania ** The Malbim, Meir Leibush ben Yehiel Michel Wisser Classical Talmudic commentaries were written by Rashi. After Rashi, the Tosafot was written, which was an omnibus commentary on the Talmud by the disciples and descendants of Rashi; this commentary was based on discussions done in the rabbinic academies of Germany and France.

Modern Torah commentaries

Modern Torah commentaries which have received wide acclaim in the Jewish community include: *''Haemek Davar'' by Rabbi Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin *The Yisrael Meir Kagan, Chofetz Chaim *''Torah Temimah'' of Baruch Epstein, Baruch ha-Levi Epstein *''Kerem HaTzvi'', by Rabbi Tzvi Hirsch Ferber *''Sefat Emet'' (Lips of Truth), Yehudah Aryeh Leib of Ger (Hasidic dynasty), Ger, 19th century Europe *The "Pentateuch and Haftaras" by Joseph H. Hertz *Samson_Raphael_Hirsch#Works of activism, ''Uebersetzung und Erklärung des Pentateuchs'' ("Translation and Commentary of the Pentateuch") by Samson Raphael Hirsch *Nechama Leibowitz, a noted woman scholar *Malbim#Methodology_and_style, ''HaTorah vehaMitzva'' ("The Torah and the Commandment") by Meïr Leibush, the "Malbim" *''Ha-Ketav veha-Kabbalah'' by Rabbi Yaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg *The Soncino Books of the Bible *Richard Elliot Friedman's ''Commentary on the Torah'' (2001)

Modern Siddur commentaries

Modern Siddur commentaries have been written by: *Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan HaCohen, ''The Chofetz Chaim's Siddur'' *Samson Raphael Hirsch, ''The Hirsch Siddur'', Feldheim *Abraham Isaac Kook, ''Olat Reyia'' *The Authorised Daily Prayer Book with commentary by Joseph H. Hertz *Elie Munk, ''The World of Prayer'', Elie Munk *Nosson Scherman, ''The Artscroll Siddur'', Mesorah Publications *Jonathan Sacks, in the ''Authorised Daily Prayer Book, Authorised Daily Prayer Book of the British Commonwealth'' (the new version of "Singer's Prayer Book") as well as the Koren Sacks Siddur. *Reuven Hammer, ''Or Hadash'', a siddur commentary built around the text of Siddur Sim Shalom, United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism *''My Peoples Prayer Book'', Jewish Lights Publishing, written by a team of non-Orthodox rabbis and Talmud scholars.

References

Bibliography

* *''Introduction to Rabbinic Literature'' Jacob Neusner, (Anchor Bible Reference Library/Doubleday) *''Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash'', H. L. Strack and G. Stemberger, (Fortress Press) *''The Literature of the Sages: Oral Torah, Halakha, Mishnah, Tosefta, Talmud, External Tractates,'' Shemuel Safrai and Peter J. Tomson (Fortress, 1987) *

External links

General

A survey of rabbinic literatureComprehensive listing by category - Global Jewish DatabaseOnline Resources for the Study of Rabbinic Literature

Links to full text resources

The Sefaria LibraryMechon MamreThe Electronic Torah Warehousehebrewbooks.org
*

Glossaries

Sources@JTS
{{Authority control Rabbinic literature, Ancient Hebrew texts Chazal