Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier (; 21 February 181531 January 1891) was a French

academic An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of tertiary education. The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, founded approximately 386 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the go ...

painter and

sculptor Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. Sculpture is the three-dimensional art work which is physically presented in the dimensions of height, width and depth. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sc ...

. He became famous for his depictions of

Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...

and his

military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...

siege A siege () . is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. Siege warfare (also called siegecrafts or poliorcetics) is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict charact ...

s and manoeuvres in paintings acclaimed both for the artist's mastery of fine detail and his assiduous craftsmanship. The English art critic

John Ruskin John Ruskin (8 February 1819 20 January 1900) was an English polymath a writer, lecturer, art historian, art critic, draughtsman and philanthropist of the Victorian era. He wrote on subjects as varied as art, architecture, Critique of politic ...

examined his work at length under a magnifying glass, "marvelling at Meissonier's manual dexterity and eye for fascinating minutiae." Meissonier enjoyed great success in his lifetime, becoming, with Gérôme and

Cabanel Alexandre Cabanel (; 28 September 1823 – 23 January 1889) was a French painter. He painted historical, classical and religious subjects in the academic style. He was also well known as a portrait painter. He was Napoleon III's preferred painte ...

, one of "the three most successful artists of the Second Empire." Meissonier's work commanded enormous prices and in 1846 he purchased a great mansion in

Poissy Poissy () is a Communes of France, commune in the Yvelines Departments of France, department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France. It is located in the western suburbs of Paris, from the Kilometre Zero, centre of Paris. Inhabitan ...

, sometimes known as the Grande Maison. The Grande Maison included two large studios, the ''atelier d'hiver'', or ''winter workshop'', situated on the top floor of the house, and at ground level, a glass-roofed annexe, the ''atelier d'été'' or ''summer workshop''. Meissonier himself said that his house and temperament belonged to another age, and some, like the critic Paul Mantz for example, criticised the artist's seemingly limited repertoire. Like

Alexandre Dumas Alexandre Dumas (born Alexandre Dumas Davy de la Pailleterie, 24 July 1802 – 5 December 1870), also known as Alexandre Dumas , was a French novelist and playwright. His works have been translated into many languages and he is one of the mos ...

, he excelled at depicting scenes of chivalry and masculine adventure against a backdrop of pre-

Revolutionary A revolutionary is a person who either participates in, or advocates for, a revolution. The term ''revolutionary'' can also be used as an adjective to describe something producing a major and sudden impact on society. Definition The term—bot ...

and pre-industrial France, specialising in scenes from seventeenth- and eighteenth-century life.

Biography

Ernest Meissonier was born in

Lyon Lyon (Franco-Provençal: ''Liyon'') is a city in France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of the French Alps, southeast of Paris, north of Marseille, southwest of Geneva, Switzerland, north ...

. His father, Charles, had been a successful businessman, the proprietor of a factory in Saint-Denis, north of Paris, that made dyes for the textile industry. He expected Ernest, the eldest of his two sons, to follow him into the dye business. Yet from his schooldays Ernest showed a taste for painting, to which some early sketches, dated 1823, bear witness. After being placed with a druggist in the Rue des Lombards, at age seventeen, he obtained leave from his parents to become an artist. Following the recommendation of a painter named Potier, himself a second class

Prix de Rome The Prix de Rome () or Grand Prix de Rome was a French scholarship for arts students, initially for painters and sculptors, that was established in 1663 during the reign of Louis XIV of France. Winners were awarded a bursary that allowed them t ...

, he was admitted to

Léon Cogniet Léon Cogniet (29 August 1794 – 20 November 1880) was a French history and portrait painter. He is probably best remembered as a teacher, with more than one hundred notable students. Biography He was born in Paris. His father was a painter ...

's studio. He also formed his style after the

Dutch masters Dutch Golden Age painting is the painting of the Dutch Golden Age, a period in Dutch history roughly spanning the 17th century, during and after the later part of the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) for Dutch independence. The new Dutch Republi ...

as represented in the

Louvre The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...

. He paid short visits to Rome and to

Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...

, and exhibited in the

Salon of 1831 The Salon of 1831 was an art exhibition held at the Louvre in Paris between June and August 1831. It was the first Salon during the July Monarchy and the first to be held since the Salon of 1827, as a planned exhibition of 1830 was cancelled due t ...

a painting then called ''Les Bourgeois Flamands'' (''Dutch Burghers''), but also known as ''The Visit to the Burgomaster'', subsequently purchased by Sir Richard Wallace, in whose collection (at

Hertford House Hertford ( ) is the county town of Hertfordshire, England, and is also a civil parish in the East Hertfordshire district of the county. The parish had a population of 26,783 at the 2011 census. The town grew around a ford on the River Lea ...

, London) it is, with fifteen other examples of this painter. It was the first attempt in France in the particular genre which was destined to make Meissonier famous: microscopic painting miniature in oils. Working hard for daily bread at illustrations for the publishers Curmer, Hetzel and Dubocherhe, Meissonier also exhibited at the

Salon of 1836 The Salon of 1836 was an art exhibition held at the Louvre in Paris. Since 1833 the Salon had been held annually, featuring paintings, sculptures and other works of art. It was followed by the Salon of 1837. It took place during the July Monarch ...

with ''Chess Player'' and the ''Errand Boy''. In 1838 Meissonier married a Protestant woman from

Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...

named Emma Steinhel, the sister of M. Steinheil, one of his artistic companions. Two children were born in due course; Thérèse (1840), and Charles. On the birth registration of his daughter he described himself as a "painter of history". After some not very happy attempts at religious painting, he returned, under the influence of

Antoine-Marie Chenavard Antoine-Marie Chenavard (4 March 1787 - 29 December 1883).. was a French architect, professor, and road inspector. Publications *''Voyage en Grèce et dans le Levant fait en 1843-1844'', 1849 *''Compositions historiques, esquisses'', 1862 *''S ...

, to the class of work he was born to excel in, and exhibited with much success the ''Game of Chess'' (1841), the ''Young Man playing the 'Cello'' (1842),'' Painter in his Studio'' (1843), ''The Guard Room'', the ''Young Man looking at Drawings'', the ''Game of Piquet'' (1845), and the ''Game of Bowls'', works which show the finish and certainty of his technique, and assured his success. Meissonier became known as the ''French Metsu'', a reference to the seventeenth-century Dutch painter

Gabriel Metsu In the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), Gabriel ( ) is an archangel with the power to announce God's will to mankind, as the messenger of God. He is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament and the Quran. Many Chris ...

, who specialised in miniature scenes of bourgeois domestic life; "grandiose history paintings did not sell as readily as smaller canvases such as landscapes or portraits, which fitted more easily onto the walls of Paris apartments". He specialised in scenes from seventeenth- and eighteenth-century life, portraying his ''bonshommes'', or ''goodfellows'' - playing chess, smoking pipes, reading books, sitting before easels or double basses, or posing in the uniforms of musketeers or halberdiers all executed in microscopic detail. Typical examples include ''Halt at an Inn'', owned by the

Duc de Morny Charles Auguste Louis Joseph de Morny, 1st Duc de Morny (; 15/16 September 181110 March 1865) was a French statesman. Biography Morny was born in Switzerland, and was the extra-marital son of Hortense de Beauharnais (the wife of Louis Bonaparte ...

and ''The Brawl'', which was owned by

Queen Victoria Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until Death and state funeral of Queen Victoria, her death in January 1901. Her reign of 63 year ...

. After his ''Soldiers'' (1848) he began ''A Day in June'', which was never finished, and exhibited ''A Smoker'' (1849) and ''Bravos'' (''Les Bravi'', 1852). In 1855 he touched the highest mark of his achievement with ''The Gamblers'' and ''The Quarrel'' (''La Rixe''), which was presented by Napoleon III to the English Court. His triumph was sustained at the Salon of 1857, when he exhibited nine pictures, and drawings; among them the ''Young Man of the Time of the Regency'', ''The Painter'', ''The Shoeing Smith'', ''The Musician'', and ''A Reading at Diderot's''. When, in the summer of 1859, Emperor Napoleon III, together with Victor Emmanuel II King of Piedmont and Sardinia, tried to oust the

Habsburgs The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout Europe d ...

from their territories in northern Italy, Meissonier received a government commission to illustrate scenes from the campaign. '' The Emperor Napoleon III at Solferino'' took Meissonier more than three years to complete. The work, a battle scene, represented something of a departure for the painter of ''bonshommes'' and musketeers though Meissonier had already painted scenes of violence and massacre, such as ''Remembrance of Civil War'', and in

1848 1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the polit ...

had indeed seen active service as a captain in the National Guard, when he fought on the side of the republican government during the '' June Days''. In autumn 1861 he was elected to a chair in the when the members of the voted for him to join their number. To the Salon of 1861 he sent ''A Shoeing Smith'', ''A Musician'', ''A Painter'', and ''M. Louis Fould''; to that of 1864 ''The Emperor at Solferino'', and ''1814''. He subsequently exhibited ''A Gamblers' Quarrel'' (1865) and '' Desaix and the Army of the Rhine'' (1867). In June 1868 Meissonier travelled to

Antibes Antibes (, , ; ) is a seaside city in the Alpes-Maritimes Departments of France, department in Southeastern France. It is located on the French Riviera between Cannes and Nice; its cape, the Cap d'Antibes, along with Cap Ferrat in Saint-Jean-Ca ...

with canvas and easel, together with his wife, son and daughter, and two of his horses, Bachelier and Lady Coningham. He may have been attracted there for historical reasonsin 1794 Napoleon had been imprisoned in

Fort Carré :''See Stade du Fort Carré for the sports stadium.'' Fort Carré, often called the Fort Carré d'Antibes, is a 16th-century star-shaped fort of four arrow-head shaped bastions that stands on a 26-meter high promontory in Antibes, France. Henry ...

, and in 1815, returning from exile on

Elba Elba (, ; ) is a Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino on the Italian mainland, and the largest island of the Tuscan Archipelago. It is also part of the Arcipelago Toscano National Park, a ...

in 1815 he had come ashore at Golfe-Jouanand the island of Sainte-Marguerite where the

Man in the Iron Mask The Man in the Iron Mask (; died 19 November 1703) was an unidentified prisoner of state during the reign of Louis XIV of France (1643–1715). The strict measures taken to keep his imprisonment secret resulted in a long-lasting legend about ...

was imprisoned 1686–1698, was a little out to sea. The light of the south attracted Meissonnier. "It is delightful to sun oneself in the brilliant light of the South instead of wandering about like gnomes in the fog. The view at Antibes is one of the fairest sights in nature." And it is possible that the influence of ''plein-air'' landscapists had encouraged Meissonier to abandon for a while his obsession with historical authenticity in favour of something more spontaneous: " of creating eye-catching visual effects by means of a few salient touches of the brush. If these Antibes landscapes never matched the work of

Pissarro Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro ( ; ; 10 July 1830 – 13 November 1903) was a Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painter born on the island of Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, St Thomas (now in the US Virgin Islands, but t ...

, they nonetheless revealed Meissonier as a painter of remarkable versatility whose ambitions were not entirely at odds with those of the École des

Batignolles Batignolles () is a neighbourhood of Paris, part of its 17th arrondissement. The neighbourhood is bounded on the south by the Boulevard des Batignolles, on the east by the Avenue de Clichy, on the north by Rue Cardinet and on the west by the Ru ...

Meissonier worked with elaborate care and a scrupulous observation of nature. Some of his works, as for instance his ''1807'', remained ten years in course of execution. To the great Exhibition of 1878 he contributed sixteen pictures: the portrait of

Alexandre Dumas fils Alexandre Dumas (; 27 July 1824 – 27 November 1895) was a French author and playwright, best known for the romantic novel '' La Dame aux Camélias'' (''The Lady of the Camellias'', usually titled '' Camille'' in English-language versions), p ...

which had been seen at the Salon of 1877, '' Cuirassiers of 1805'', ''A Venetian Painter'', ''Moreau and his Staff before Hohenlinden'', a ''Portrait of a Lady'', the ''Road to La Salice'', ''The Two Friends'', ''The Outpost of the Grand Guard'', ''A Scout'', and ''Dictating his Memoirs''. Thenceforward he exhibited less in the Salons, and sent his work to smaller exhibitions. Being chosen president of the

Great National Exhibition Great may refer to: Descriptions or measurements * Great, a relative measurement in physical space, see Size * Greatness, being divine, majestic, superior, majestic, or transcendent People * List of people known as "the Great" * Artel Great (bo ...

in 1883, he was represented there by such works as ''The Pioneer'', ''The Army of the Rhine'', ''The Arrival of the Guests'', and ''Saint Mark''. On 24 May 1884 an exhibition was opened at the Petit Gallery of Meissonier's collected works, including 146 examples. As president of the jury on painting at the Exhibition of 1889 he contributed some new pictures. In the following year the ''New Salon'' was formed (the ''

Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts (SNBA; ; ) was the term under which two groups of French artists united, the first for some exhibitions in the early 1860s, the second since 1890 for annual exhibitions. 1862 Established in 1862 by the painter a ...

''), and Meissonier became its president. He exhibited there in 1890 his painting ''1807''; and in 1891, shortly after his death, his ''Barricade'' was displayed there. A less well-known class of work than his painting is a series of

etching Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio (incised) in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other type ...

s: ''The Last Supper'', ''The Skill of Vuillaume the Lute Player'', ''The Little Smoker'', ''The Old Smoker'', the ''Preparations for a Duel'', ''Anglers'', ''Troopers'', ''The Reporting Sergeant'', and ''Polichinelle'', in the Hertford House collection. He also tried

lithography Lithography () is a planographic method of printing originally based on the miscibility, immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by ...

, but the prints are now scarcely to be found. Of all the painters of the century, Meissonier was one of the most fortunate in the matter of payments. His ''Cuirassiers'', now in the late duc d'Aumale's collection at

Chantilly Chantilly may refer to: Places France *Chantilly, Oise, a city ** US Chantilly, a football club *Château de Chantilly United States * Chantilly, Missouri, an unincorporated community * Chantilly (Charlotte neighborhood), North Carolina ...

, was bought from the artist for £10,000, sold at Brussels for £11,000, and then resold for £16,000. Besides his genre portraits, he painted some others: those of ''Doctor Lefevre'', of ''Chenavard'', of ''Vanderbilt'', of ''Doctor Guyon'', and of ''Stanford''. He also collaborated with the painter Français in a picture of ''The Park at St Cloud''. Meissonier was attached by Napoleon III to the imperial staff, and accompanied him during the campaign in Italy at the beginning of the war in 1870. During the

Siege of Paris (1870–1871) The siege of Paris took place from 19 September 1870 to 28 January 1871 and ended in the capture of the city by forces of the various states of the North German Confederation, led by the Kingdom of Prussia. The siege was the culmination of the F ...

he was colonel of a regiment de marche, one of the improvised units thrown up in the chaos of the

Franco-Prussian war The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 Janua ...

. In 1840 he was awarded a third-class medal, a second-class medal in 1841, first-class medals in 1843 and 1844 and medals of honour at the great exhibitions. In 1846 he was appointed knight of the

Légion d'honneur The National Order of the Legion of Honour ( ), formerly the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honour (), is the highest and most prestigious French national order of merit, both military and Civil society, civil. Currently consisting of five cl ...

and promoted to the higher grades in 1856, 1867 (June 29), and 1880 (July 12), receiving the Grand Cross in 1889 (October 29). He nevertheless cherished certain ambitions which remained unfulfilled. He hoped to become a professor at the

École des Beaux-Arts ; ) refers to a number of influential art schools in France. The term is associated with the Beaux-Arts architecture, Beaux-Arts style in architecture and city planning that thrived in France and other countries during the late nineteenth centu ...

, but the appointment he desired was never given to him. He also aspired to be chosen deputy or made senator, but he was not elected. In 1861 he succeeded Abel de Pujol as member of the Academy of Fine Arts. On the occasion of the centenary festival in honour of Michelangelo in 1875 he was the delegate of the Institute of France to Florence, and spoke as its representative. Meissonier was an admirable draughtsman upon wood, his illustrations to ''Les Conties Rémois'' (engraved by Lavoignat), to Lamartine's ''Fall of an Angel to Paul and Virginia'', and to ''The French Painted by Themselves'' being among the best known. The leading engravers and etchers of France have been engaged upon plates from the works of Meissonier, and many of these plates command the highest esteem of collectors. Meissonier died in Paris on 31 January 1891. When the

was re-vitalized, in 1890, Ernest Meissonier was elected its first chairman, but he died soon; his successor was

Puvis de Chavannes Pierre Puvis de Chavannes (; 14 December 1824 – 24 October 1898) was a French painter known for his mural painting, who came to be known as "the painter for France". He became the co-founder and president of the Société Nationale des Beaux-A ...

. The vice-president was

Auguste Rodin François Auguste René Rodin (; ; 12 November 184017 November 1917) was a French sculptor generally considered the founder of modern sculpture. He was schooled traditionally and took a craftsman-like approach to his work. Rodin possessed a u ...

. His son,

Jean Charles Meissonier Jean may refer to: People * Jean (female given name) * Jean (male given name) * Jean (surname) Fictional characters * Jean Grey, a Marvel Comics character * Jean Valjean, fictional character in novel ''Les Misérables'' and its adaptations * Jean ...

, also a painter, was his father's pupil, and was admitted to the Légion d'honneur in 1889. Rue Meissonier, in the 17th Arrondissement in Paris, France, is named after him. In 2020, Meissonier's painting ''Joueurs d’échecs'' was restituted to the heirs of Marguerite Stern, from whom it was looted under the Nazis.

Gallery

File:Head of a Soldier.jpg, alt=, ''Head of a Soldier'', 1860-1870 File:Siege of Paris.jpg, '' The Siege of Paris'', 1884 File:Napoléon III à la bataille de Solférino..jpg, ''

Napoléon III Napoleon III (Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April 18089 January 1873) was President of France from 1848 to 1852 and then Emperor of the French from 1852 until his deposition in 1870. He was the first president, second emperor, and last ...

at the

Battle of Solferino The Battle of Solferino (referred to in Italy as the Battle of Solferino and San Martino) on 24 June 1859 resulted in the victory of the allied Second French Empire, French army under Napoleon III and the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, Piedmont- ...

'', 1863 File:Ernest Meissonier - A Game of Piquet.jpg, ''A Game of Piquet'',
1861 File:Jean Louis Ernest Meissonier, Jules Pelletier, 1867. Clark Art Institute.tif, ''Jules Pelletier'', 1867.

Clark Art Institute The Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, commonly referred to as the Clark, is an art museum and research institution located in Williamstown, Massachusetts, Williamstown, Massachusetts, United States. Its collection consists of European ...

File:Meissonier - Relief After the Battle.jpg, ''Relief after the Battle'' File:Etude de Cheval - Meissonier.jpg, Study of a horse,
jumping at a gallop, n.d. File:Jean-Louis Ernest Meissonier autoportrait.jpg, Self-portrait, oil sketch,
ca. 1865 File:Ernest Meissonier - End of the Game of Cards .jpg, ''The End of the Game
of Cards'', ca. 1870 File:La marquesa de Manzanedo (Meissonier)2.jpg, ''The Marchioness of Manzanedo'',
1872 File:The Card Players - Ernest Meissonier.jpg, ''The Card Players'',
1872 File:Le Philosophe - Ernest Meissonier.jpg, ''The Philosopher'',
1878 File:Leland Stanford p1070023.jpg, ''Leland Stanford'',
1881 File:Jean Louis Ernest Meissonier, Man Reading, 1851. Clark Art Institute.tif, ''Man Reading'', 1851.

File:Portrait du Marechal Ney Duc, d'Elchingen - Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier.jpg, Portrait du Marechal Ney, Duc d'Elchingen File:Meissonier Barricade.jpg, ''Rue de la Mortellerie, June 1848'', 1850 (Louvre) File:The Card Players MET 60393.jpg, ''The Card Players'', 1863,

Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met, is an Encyclopedic museum, encyclopedic art museum in New York City. By floor area, it is the List of largest museums, third-largest museum in the world and the List of larg ...

File:Soldier Playing the Theorbo MET DP140947.jpg, '' Soldier Playing the Theorbo'', 1865,

File:A General and His Aide-de-camp MET ep87.15.37.R.jpg, ''A General and His Aide-de-camp'', 1869,

File:Jean Louis Ernest Meissonier, The Musician, 1859. Clark Art Institute.tif, ''The Musician'', 1859.

Pupils

* * Maurice Courant *

Édouard Detaille Jean-Baptiste Édouard Detaille (; 5 October 1848 – 23 December 1912) was a French academic painter and military artist noted for his precision and realistic detail. He was regarded as the "semi-official artist of the French army". Biogra ...

* *

Daniel Ridgway Knight Daniel Ridgway Knight (15 March 18399 March 1924) was an American artist born in Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. Biography Knight was a pupil at the École des Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gleyre, and later worked in the private studio of Meissonie ...

* Charles Meissonier *

Louis Monziès Louis Monziès (28 May 1849 – 13 March 1930) was a French painter and etcher. He was the curator of the three Museums of Le Mans for 10 years until his death. Career Louis Monziès began to learn painting and etching in Paris in 1871 ...

Alphonse Moutte Jean Joseph Marie Alphonse Moutte (March 4, 1840 – April 21, 1913) was a French painter in the Naturalist style, known for his genre scenes and coastal landscapes. Biography He was born to an old Provençal family and began his education at t ...

* Gaylord Sangston Truesdell

Notes

References

* * * *

External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Meissonier, Ernest 1815 births 1891 deaths Artists from Lyon 19th-century French painters French male painters 19th-century French war artists Academic art French war artists Members of the Académie des beaux-arts Honorary members of the Royal Academy 19th-century French male artists

Biography

Gallery

Pupils

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

Works published up to 1901

Contemporary scholarship

External links