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Japanese Peruvians ( or ''nipo-peruano''; , ''Nikkei Perūjin'') are Peruvian citizens of
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
origin or ancestry. Peru has the second largest ethnic Japanese population in South America after
Brazil Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in South America. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by area, fifth-largest country by area and the List of countries and dependencies by population ...
. This community has made a significant cultural impact on the country,Takenaka, Ayumi
"The Japanese in Peru: History of Immigration, Settlement, and Racialization."
''Latin American Perspectives 31, no. 3, 2004, pp. 77–98 and as of the 2017 Census in Peru, 22,534 people or 0.2% of the Peruvian population self reported themselves as having ''Nikkei'' or Japanese ancestry, though the Japanese government estimates that at least 200,000 Peruvians have some degree of Japanese ancestry. Peru was the first
Latin America Latin America is the cultural region of the Americas where Romance languages are predominantly spoken, primarily Spanish language, Spanish and Portuguese language, Portuguese. Latin America is defined according to cultural identity, not geogr ...
n country to establish diplomatic relations with Japan, in June 1873.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs In many countries, the ministry of foreign affairs (abbreviated as MFA or MOFA) is the highest government department exclusively or primarily responsible for the state's foreign policy and relations, diplomacy, bilateral, and multilateral r ...
(MOFA), Japan
Japan–Peru relations
 Peru was also the first Latin American country to accept Japanese immigration. The ''Sakura Maru'' carried Japanese families from
Yokohama is the List of cities in Japan, second-largest city in Japan by population as well as by area, and the country's most populous Municipalities of Japan, municipality. It is the capital and most populous city in Kanagawa Prefecture, with a popu ...
to Peru and arrived on April 3, 1899, at the Peruvian port city of
Callao Callao () is a Peruvian seaside city and Regions of Peru, region on the Pacific Ocean in the Lima metropolitan area. Callao is Peru's chief seaport and home to its main airport, Jorge Chávez International Airport. Callao municipality consists ...
. This group of 790 Japanese became the first of several waves of emigrants who made new lives for themselves in Peru, some nine years before emigration to Brazil began. Most immigrants arrived from
Okinawa most commonly refers to: * Okinawa Prefecture, Japan's southernmost prefecture * Okinawa Island, the largest island of Okinawa Prefecture * Okinawa Islands, an island group including Okinawa itself * Okinawa (city), the second largest city in th ...
,
Gifu is a Cities of Japan, city located in the south-central portion of Gifu Prefecture, Japan, and serves as the prefectural capital. The city has played an important role in Japan's history because of its location in the middle of the country. Durin ...
,
Hiroshima is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture in Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 1,199,391. The gross domestic product (GDP) in Greater Hiroshima, Hiroshima Urban Employment Area, was US$61.3 billion as of 2010. Kazumi Matsui has b ...
,
Kanagawa is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Kantō region of Honshu. Kanagawa Prefecture is the List of Japanese prefectures by population, second-most populous prefecture of Japan at 9,221,129 (1 April 2022) and third-dens ...
and Osaka prefectures. Many arrived as farmers or to work in the fields but, after their contracts were completed, settled in the cities. In the period before World WarII, the Japanese community in Peru was largely run by ''
issei are Japanese immigrants to countries in North America and South America. The term is used mostly by ethnic Japanese. are born in Japan; their children born in the new country are (, "two", plus , "generation"); and their grandchildren are ...
'' immigrants born in Japan. "Those of the second generation he ''nisei''">nisei.html" ;"title="he ''nisei">he ''nisei''were almost inevitably excluded from community decision-making."


Japanese schools in Peru

Peru's current Japanese international school ''Zaigai kyōiku shisetsu'' ( 在外教育施設 'Overseas educational institution'), or in English, Japanese international school or overseas Japanese school, may refer to one of three types of institutions officially classified by the Ministry ...
is Asociación Academia de Cultura Japonesa (Peru)">Asociación Academia de Cultura Japonesa in
Surco Santiago de Surco, commonly known simply as Surco, is a district of Lima, Peru. It is bordered on the north with the district of Ate Vitarte and La Molina; on the east with San Juan de Miraflores, on the west with San Borja, Surquillo, Mira ...
, Lima.


World War II

Although there had been ongoing tensions between non-Japanese and Japanese Peruvians, the situation was drastically exacerbated by the war. Rising tensions ultimately led to a series of discriminatory laws being passed in 1936, the results of which included stigmatization of Japanese immigrants as "bestial", "untrustworthy", "militaristic", and "unfairly" competing with Peruvians for wages. Fueled by legislative discrimination and media campaigns, a massive race riot (referred to as the "Saqueo") began on May 13, 1940, and lasted for three days. During the riots Japanese Peruvians were attacked and their homes and businesses destroyed. Despite its massive scale, the saqueo was underreported, a reflection of public sentiment towards the Japanese population at the time. By 1941, there were around 26,000 immigrants of
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
ese nationality in
Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...
. In December of that year, the Japanese
Attack on Pearl Harbor The attack on Pearl HarborAlso known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Empire of Japan on the United States Pacific Fleet at Naval Station Pearl Harbor, its naval base at Pearl Harbor on Oahu, Territory of ...
, would mark the beginning of the
Pacific War The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia–Pacific War or the Pacific Theatre, was the Theater (warfare), theatre of World War II fought between the Empire of Japan and the Allies of World War II, Allies in East Asia, East and Southeast As ...
campaign for the
United States of America The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguo ...
in World WarII.Densho, Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University.
Japanese Latin Americans
" c. 2003, accessed 12 Apr 2009. After the Japanese air raids on Pearl Harbor and the
Philippines The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...
, the U.S.
Office of Strategic Services The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the first intelligence agency of the United States, formed during World War II. The OSS was formed as an agency of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) to coordinate espionage activities behind enemy lines ...
(OSS), formed during World WarII to coordinate secret espionage activities against the
Axis Powers The Axis powers, originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis and also Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, was the military coalition which initiated World War II and fought against the Allies of World War II, Allies. Its principal members were Nazi Ge ...
for the branches of the
United States Armed Forces The United States Armed Forces are the Military, military forces of the United States. U.S. United States Code, federal law names six armed forces: the United States Army, Army, United States Marine Corps, Marine Corps, United States Navy, Na ...
and the
United States State Department The United States Department of State (DOS), or simply the State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs o ...
, were alarmed at the large Japanese Peruvian community living in
Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...
and were also wary of the increasing new arrivals of Japanese nationals to Peru. Fearing the
Empire of Japan The Empire of Japan, also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was the Japanese nation state that existed from the Meiji Restoration on January 3, 1868, until the Constitution of Japan took effect on May 3, 1947. From Japan–Kor ...
could sooner or later decide to invade the
Republic of Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...
and use the Southern American country as a landing base for its troops and its nationals living there as foreign agents against the US, in order to open another military front in the American Pacific, the
U.S. government The Federal Government of the United States of America (U.S. federal government or U.S. government) is the national government of the United States. The U.S. federal government is composed of three distinct branches: legislative, executi ...
quickly negotiated with
Lima Lima ( ; ), founded in 1535 as the Ciudad de los Reyes (, Spanish for "City of Biblical Magi, Kings"), is the capital and largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rive ...
a political–military alliance agreement in 1942. This alliance provided Peru with new military technology such as military aircraft, tanks, modern infantry equipment, and new boats for the Peruvian Navy, as well as new American bank loans and new investments in the Peruvian economy. In return, the Americans ordered the Peruvians to track, identify and create ID files for all the Japanese Peruvians living in Peru. Later, at the end of 1942 and during all of 1943 and 1944, the Peruvian government on behalf of the U.S. Government and the OSS organized and started the massive arrests, without warrants and without judicial proceedings or hearings and the deportation of many of the Japanese Peruvian community to several American internment camps run by the U.S. Justice Department in the states of Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Georgia and Virginia. Racism and economic self-interest were major motivating factors in Peru's eager compliance with American deportation requests. As noted in a 1943 memorandum, Raymond Ickes of the Central and South American division of the Alien Enemy Control Unit had observed that many ethnic Japanese had been sent to the United States "... merely because the Peruvians wanted their businesses and not because there was any adverse evidence against them." The enormous groups of Japanese Peruvian forced exiles were initially placed among the Japanese Americans who had been excluded from the US west coast; later they were interned in the
Immigration and Naturalization Service The United States Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) was a United States federal government agency under the United States Department of Labor from 1933 to 1940 and under the United States Department of Justice from 1940 to 2003. Refe ...
(INS) facilities in
Crystal City, Texas Crystal City is a city in and the county seat of Zavala County, Texas, United States. The population was 6,354 as of the 2020 census. It was settled as a farming and ranching community and was a major railroad stop being from San Antonio. Spin ...
;
Kenedy, Texas Kenedy is a city in Karnes County, Texas, United States, named for Mifflin Kenedy, who bought and wanted to develop a new town that would carry his name. The population was 3,473 at the 2020 census, up from 3,296 at the 2010 census. History I ...
; and
Santa Fe, New Mexico Santa Fe ( ; , literal translation, lit. "Holy Faith") is the capital city, capital of the U.S. state of New Mexico, and the county seat of Santa Fe County. With over 89,000 residents, Santa Fe is the List of municipalities in New Mexico, fourt ...
. The Japanese Peruvians were kept in these "alien detention camps" for more than two years before, through the efforts of civil rights attorney Wayne M. Collins, being offered "
parole Parole, also known as provisional release, supervised release, or being on paper, is a form of early release of a prisoner, prison inmate where the prisoner agrees to abide by behavioral conditions, including checking-in with their designated ...
" relocation to the labor-starved farming community in Seabrook, New Jersey. The interned Japanese Peruvian ''
nisei is a Japanese language, Japanese-language term used in countries in North America and South America to specify the nikkeijin, ethnically Japanese children born in the new country to Japanese-born immigrants, or . The , or Second generation imm ...
'' in the United States were further separated from the ''issei,'' in part because of distance between the internment camps and in part because the interned nisei knew almost nothing about their parents' homeland and language. The deportation of Japanese Peruvians to the United States also involved expropriation without compensation of their property and other assets in Peru. At war's end, only 790 Japanese Peruvian citizens returned to Peru, and about 400 remained in the United States as "stateless" refugees. The interned Peruvian ''nisei'' who became naturalized American citizens would consider their children ''sansei,'' meaning three generations from the grandparents who had left Japan for Peru.


''Dekasegi'' Japanese Peruvians

In 1998, with new strict laws from the Japanese immigration, many fake-nikkei were deported or went back to Peru. The requirements to bring Japanese descendants were more strict, including documents as "zairyūshikaku-ninteishōmeisho" or Certificate of Eligibility for Resident, which probes the Japanese bloodline of the applicant. With the onset of the global recession in 2008, among the expatriate communities in Japan, Peruvians accounted for the smallest share of those who returned to their homelands. People returning from Japan also made up the smallest share of those applying for assistance under the new law. As of the end of November 2013, only three Peruvians who had returned from Japan had received reintegration assistance. The law provides some attractive benefits, but most Peruvians (as of 2015, there were 60,000 Peruvians in Japan) were not interested in returning to Peru. Peruvians in Japan came together to offer support for Japanese victims of the devastating March 2011 earthquake and tsunami. In the wake of the disaster, the town of Minamisanriku in
Miyagi Prefecture is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region of Honshu. Miyagi Prefecture has a population of 2,265,724 (1 August 2023) and has a geographic area of . Miyagi Prefecture borders Iwate Prefecture to the north, Akit ...
lost all but two of its fishing vessels. Peruvians raised money to buy the town new boats as a service to Japan and to express their gratitude for the hospitality received in Japan.


The Japanese press in Peru

In June 1921, Nippi Shimpo (Japanese Peruvian News) was published.


Cuisine

The cuisine of Peru is a heterogeneous mixture of the diverse cultural influences that enriched the South American country. Nikkei cuisine, which fuses Peruvian and Japanese cuisine, has become a gastronomic sensation in many countries. The origins of Nikkei cuisine relied on the wide variety of fresh ingredients in Peru, the prosperous fishing industry of Peru, the Japanese know-how using fresh seafood, and adopting
ceviche Ceviche, cebiche, sebiche, or seviche () is a cold dish consisting of fish or shellfish marinated in citrus and seasonings. Different versions of ceviche are part of the culinary cultures of various Latin American countries along the Pacific O ...
, which is the Peruvian flag dish, and Chifa dishes as well (fusion cuisine that came from the Chinese community in Peru). Japanese fusion dishes like Acevichado maki sushi rolls were created by incorporating the recipes and flavors from the indigenous Peruvians. Some examples of chefs who use Nikkei cuisine include
Nobu Matsuhisa Nobuyuki "Nobu" Matsuhisa (松久 信幸 ''Matsuhisa Nobuyuki''; born March 10, 1949) is a Japanese celebrity chef and restaurateur known for his fusion cuisine blending traditional Japanese dishes with Peruvian ingredients. His signature dis ...
,
Ferran Adrià Fernando Adrià Acosta (; born 14 May 1962) is a Spanish chef. He was the head chef of the El Bulli restaurant in Roses, Girona, Roses on the Costa Brava and is considered one of the best chefs in the world. He has often collaborated with his b ...
and Kurt Zdesar.


Notable people

* Anthony Aoki: Peruvian footballer and midfielder *
Alberto Fujimori Alberto Kenji Fujimori Fujimori (26 July 1938 – 11 September 2024) was a Peruvian politician, professor, and engineer who served as the 54th president of Peru from 1990 to 2000.* * * * * * * Born in Lima, Fujimori was the country's fir ...
: President and ''de-facto'' dictator of Peru * Koichi Aparicio: Peruvian footballer *
Ernesto Arakaki Ernesto Seikō Arakaki Arakaki (born June 13, 1979, in Lima) is a Peruvian retired football defender. Club career He had played for the Second Division team Deportivo AELU since he was twelve years old. In 1998, he was bought by the First Divi ...
: International footballer *
Hideyoshi Arakaki Hideyoshi Enrique Arakaki Chinen (born 2 February 1998) is a Peruvian professional footballer who plays as a right winger for Peruvian club Alianza Atlético. Club career Arakaki excelled with Universidad San Martín during the 2015 Torneo de ...
: Peruvian footballer *
Keiko Fujimori Keiko Sofía Fujimori Higuchi (, , Hepburn romanization, Hepburn: , ; born 25 May 1975) is a Peruvian politician and business administrator. Fujimori is the eldest daughter of former Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori and Susana Higuchi. From ...
: Former First Lady, Congresswoman and businesswoman (daughter of Alberto Fujimori) *
Kenji Fujimori Kenji Gerardo Fujimori Higuchi (, , Hepburn: , ; born 19 May 1980) is a Peruvian businessman, politician and a former congressman representing Lima from 2011 until he was suspended from congressional duty in June 2018, in aftermath of the ''Ma ...
: Congressman (son of Alberto Fujimori) *
Santiago Fujimori Santiago Fujimori Inomoto (born 3 December 1946) is a Peruvian lawyer, politician and a former congressman, representing Lima for the 2006–2011 term. Of Japanese descent, Fujimori is the younger brother of former President Alberto Fujimori wh ...
: Lawyer (younger brother of Alberto Fujimori) * Víctor García Toma: Former Minister of Justice *
Susana Higuchi Susana Shizuko Higuchi Miyagawa (, , Hepburn: , ; 26 April 1950 – 8 December 2021) was a Peruvian politician and engineer. She served as First Lady of Peru from 1990 to 1994 as the wife of President Alberto Fujimori. In 1994, she described ...
: Politician, former First Lady, ex-spouse of Alberto Fujimori *
Jorge Hirano Jorge Hirano Matsumoto (born 16 August 1959 in Huaral) is a former Japanese Peruvian football player. Club career Hirano didn't have the looks of a prolific goal scorer nonetheless of a forward but he compensated his slight figure with extraord ...
: International footballer *
Fernando Iwasaki Fernando Iwasaki Cauti (born 1961) is a Peruvian writer and historian. Born into a family with multiple roots (Japan, Ecuador and Italy). While in Peru, he taught at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru and the University of the Pacific ...
: Writer *
Aldo Miyashiro Aldo Marcos Miyashiro Ribeiro (born February 9, 1976) is a Peruvian actor, screenwriter, playwright, film director and presenter. Known mainly for his roles as Caradura in the Misterio series and Tony Blades in the series La gran sangre, and als ...
: Writer, TV host and celebrity *
Augusto Miyashiro Augusto Miyashiro Yamashiro (born 8 August 1949) is a Peruvian engineer and politician who has been the mayor of Chorrillos District five times, first from 1999 to 2002 under the Fujimorist Fujimorism (, , Hepburn: ) is the policies and the p ...
: Mayor of the City of Chorrillos since 1999, an important middle class southern suburban district of Metropolitan Lima *
Kaoru Morioka is a Peruvian-born Japanese futsal player. He plays for O Parrulo FS and Japanese national futsal team. Career Morioka was born in Lima, Peru. In his childhood, he moved to Japan with his family. He graduated from Narita City Tomisato Elemen ...
: Japanese futsal player *
Kazuyoshi Shimabuku is a Peruvian professional footballer who plays as a forward for Fujieda MYFC, on loan from J1 League side Albirex Niigata. Personal life Born in Peru, he belongs to the Japanese Peruvian community. He emigrated to Japan at age 3 and was natur ...
: Japanese football player *
Venancio Shinki Venancio Shinki (April 1, 1932 – November 17, 2016) was a Peruvian painter. Born in Lima to a Japanese immigrant father from Hiroshima Prefecture and a Peruvian mother, Shinki was raised on the Hacienda San Nicolás in Supe, north of Lima. ...
: Artist *
David Soria Yoshinari (born September 18, 1977, in Lima, Peru) is a Japanese Peruvian retired football player. International career Soria made five appearances for the Peru national football team The Peru national football team (), nicknamed ''La Bicolor'', r ...
: International footballer *
Tony Succar Antonio Guillermo "Tony" Succar (born 18 May 1986),Wall Street International Magazine, 11 July 2012 retrieved 1 June 2013. is a Peruvian- American percussionist, composer, arranger, bandleader, and producer. He is the son of singer Mimy Succa ...
: percussionist and music producer * José Pereda Maruyama: Retired international footballer, having notably played for Argentinian powerhouse
Boca Juniors Club Atlético Boca Juniors () is an Argentine professional sports club based in La Boca, a neighbourhood of Buenos Aires. The club is best known for its men's professional Association football, football team which, since its promotion in 1913 ...
* Akio Tamashiro: Karate athlete. Pan American Gold medalist. Head of the Peruvian Karate Federation *
Eduardo Tokeshi Eduardo Tokeshi Namizato (born August 12, 1960, in Lima, Peru) is a contemporary Peruvian artist. Eduardo Tokeshi was born on August 12, 1960, in Lima. His parents are Sara Namizato and Victor Tokeshi; he has one brother Jorge (b. 1957) and one s ...
: Plastic artist * Tilsa Tsuchiya: Artist * José Watanabe: Poet *
Arturo Yamasaki Arturo Maximo Yamasaki Maldonado (11 May 1929 – 23 July 2013 ), also known as Arturo Yamasaki, was a Peruvian-Mexican international football referee. He represented the Peruvian Football Association from 1960 to 1966, then he emigrated to Mexi ...
: Football referee, famous for officiating the
Match of the Century Match of the Century has referred to many events in various sports: Contract bridge * Bridge Battle of the Century, Lenz vs Culbertson, 1931–1932 Chess * The World Chess Championship 1972, between Bobby Fischer and defending champion Boris Spass ...
in the
1970 FIFA World Cup The 1970 FIFA World Cup was the 9th edition of the FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international Association football, football championship for List of men's national association football teams, men's senior national teams. Held from 31 May to ...
* Rafael Yamashiro: Peruvian Congressman and politician *
Cesar Ychikawa Cesar or César may refer to: Arts and entertainment * César (film), ''César'' (film), a 1936 French romantic drama * César (film), ''César'' (play), a play by Marcel Pagnolt Places * Cesar, Portugal * Cesar Department, Colombia * Cesar R ...
: Singer and economist * Jaime Yoshiyama: Former Prime Minister, former Cabinet Minister, former vice president and former President of the Peruvian Congress * Carlos Yushimito (Yoshimitsu): Writer and analyst


See also

*
Asian Latin Americans Asian Latin Americans (sometimes ''Asian-Latinos'') are Latin Americans of Asian diaspora, Asian descent. Asian immigrants to Latin America have largely been from East Asia or West Asia. Historically, Asians in Latin America have a centuries-l ...
*
Chinese Peruvians Chinese Peruvians, also known as ''tusán'' (a loanword from ), are Peruvian citizens whose ancestors came from China. Due to acculturation, most third and fourth generation Chinese Peruvians do not speak the language of their ancestors. Howeve ...
*
Japan–Peru relations Japan–Peru relations are the historical and bilateral ties between Japan and the Republic of Peru. Both countries are members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, the For ...
* Hirohito Ōta


Notes


References


Other cited works

*Connell, Thomas. (2002)
America's Japanese Hostages: The US Plan For A Japanese Free Hemisphere
Westport: Praeger-Greenwood.
OCLC 606835431
*Gardiner, Clinton Harvey. (1975)
''The Japanese and Peru. 1873–1973.''
Albuquerque:
University of New Mexico Press The University of New Mexico Press (UNMP) is a university press at the University of New Mexico. It was founded in 1929 and published pamphlets for the university in its early years before expanding into quarterlies and books. Its administrativ ...
.
OCLC 2047887
*Gardiner, C. Harvey. (1981)
''Pawns in a Triangle of Hate: The Peruvian Japanese and the United States.''
Seattle:
University of Washington Press The University of Washington Press is an American academic publishing house. The organization is a division of the University of Washington, based in Seattle. Although the division functions autonomously, it has worked to assist the university' ...
.
OCLC 164799077
*Higashide, Seiichi. (2000)
''Adios to Tears: The Memoirs of a Japanese Peruvian Internee in U.S. Concentration Camps.''
Seattle: University of Washington Press.
OCLC 247923540
*López-Calvo, Ignacio. (2009)
''One World Periphery Reads the Other. Knowing the 'Oriental' in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula.''
Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009. 130–147.
OCLC 473479607
*Masterson, Daniel M. and Sayaka Funada-Classen. (2004), '' The Japanese in Latin America: The Asian American Experience.''
View at
Google Books Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search, Google Print, and by its code-name Project Ocean) is a service from Google that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical charac ...
) Urbana, Illinois:
University of Illinois Press The University of Illinois Press (UIP) is an American university press and is part of the University of Illinois System. Founded in 1918, the press publishes some 120 new books each year, thirty-three scholarly journals, and several electroni ...
. ;


External links


Association website
{{Portal bar, Japan, Peru Asian diaspora in Peru
Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...
Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...
* Japan–Peru relations