James Burnham
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James Burnham (November 22, 1905 – July 28, 1987) was an American philosopher and political theorist. He chaired the New York University Department of Philosophy. His first book was ''An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis'' (1931). Burnham became a prominent
Trotskyist Trotskyism (, ) is the political ideology and branch of Marxism developed by Russian revolutionary and intellectual Leon Trotsky along with some other members of the Left Opposition and the Fourth International. Trotsky described himself as an ...
activist in the 1930s. His most famous book, '' The Managerial Revolution'' (1941), speculated on the future of an increasingly proceduralist hence sclerotic society. A year before he wrote the book, he rejected
Marxism Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, ...
and became an influential theorist of the
political right Right-wing politics is the range of political ideologies that view certain social orders and hierarchies as inevitable, natural, normal, or desirable, typically supporting this position based on natural law, economics, authority, property, ...
as a leader of the American conservative movement. Burnham was an editor and a regular contributor to William F. Buckley's conservative magazine ''
National Review ''National Review'' is an American conservative editorial magazine, focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955. Its editor-in-chief is Rich L ...
'' on a variety of topics. He rejected
containment Containment was a Geopolitics, geopolitical strategic foreign policy pursued by the United States during the Cold War to prevent the spread of communism after the end of World War II. The name was loosely related to the term ''Cordon sanitaire ...
of the Soviet Union and called for the rollback of communism worldwide.


Biography


Early life

Born in
Chicago Chicago is the List of municipalities in Illinois, most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and in the Midwestern United States. With a population of 2,746,388, as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the List of Unite ...
,
Illinois Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. It borders on Lake Michigan to its northeast, the Mississippi River to its west, and the Wabash River, Wabash and Ohio River, Ohio rivers to its ...
, on November 22, 1905, James Burnham was the son of Claude George Burnham, an English immigrant and executive with the Burlington Railroad. James was raised as a
Roman Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
but rejected Catholicism as a college student, professing
atheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the Existence of God, existence of Deity, deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the ...
for the rest of his life. He graduated at the top of his class at
Princeton University Princeton University is a private university, private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, Elizabeth as the College of New Jersey, Princeton is the List of Colonial ...
before attending
Balliol College, Oxford Balliol College () is a constituent college of the University of Oxford. Founded in 1263 by nobleman John I de Balliol, it has a claim to be the oldest college in Oxford and the English-speaking world. With a governing body of a master and aro ...
, where his professors included J. R. R. Tolkien and Martin D'Arcy. In 1929, he became a professor of
philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
at
New York University New York University (NYU) is a private university, private research university in New York City, New York, United States. Chartered in 1831 by the New York State Legislature, NYU was founded in 1832 by Albert Gallatin as a Nondenominational ...
. In 1934, he married Marcia Lightner.


Trotskyism

In 1933, along with Sidney Hook, Burnham helped to organize the
American Workers Party The American Workers Party (AWP) was a socialist organization established in December 1933 by activists in the Conference for Progressive Labor Action, a group headed by A. J. Muste. Formation The American Workers Party was established in De ...
led by the Dutch-born
pacifist Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress in Glasgow in 1901. A related term is ''a ...
minister A. J. Muste. Burnham supported the 1934 merger with the
Communist League of America The Communist League of America (Opposition) was founded by James P. Cannon, Max Shachtman and Martin Abern late in 1928 after their expulsion from the Communist Party USA for Trotskyism. The CLA(O) was the United States section of Leon Trotsky' ...
which formed the US Workers Party. In 1935, he allied with the
Trotskyist Trotskyism (, ) is the political ideology and branch of Marxism developed by Russian revolutionary and intellectual Leon Trotsky along with some other members of the Left Opposition and the Fourth International. Trotsky described himself as an ...
wing of that party and favored fusion with the
Socialist Party of America The Socialist Party of America (SPA) was a socialist political party in the United States formed in 1901 by a merger between the three-year-old Social Democratic Party of America and disaffected elements of the Socialist Labor Party of America ...
. During this period, he became a friend to
Leon Trotsky Lev Davidovich Bronstein ( – 21 August 1940), better known as Leon Trotsky,; ; also transliterated ''Lyev'', ''Trotski'', ''Trockij'' and ''Trotzky'' was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician, and political theorist. He was a key figure ...
. Writing for '' Partisan Review'', Burnham was also an important influence on writers including Dwight Macdonald and Philip Rahv. However, Burnham's engagement with Trotskyism was short-lived: from 1937 a number of disagreements came to the fore. In 1937, the Trotskyists were expelled from the Socialist Party, an action which led to the formation of the Socialist Workers Party (SWP) at the end of the year. Inside the SWP, Burnham allied with Max Shachtman in a faction fight over the position of the SWP's majority faction, led by James P. Cannon and backed by Leon Trotsky, defending the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
as a degenerated workers state against the incursions of
imperialism Imperialism is the maintaining and extending of Power (international relations), power over foreign nations, particularly through expansionism, employing both hard power (military and economic power) and soft power (diplomatic power and cultura ...
. Shachtman and Burnham, especially after witnessing the Nazi–Soviet pact of 1939 and the invasions of
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
,
Latvia Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the three Baltic states, along with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south. It borders Russia to the east and Belarus to t ...
,
Lithuania Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania, is a country in the Baltic region of Europe. It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, P ...
, and
Estonia Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Ru ...
by
Joseph Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Dzhugashvili; 5 March 1953) was a Soviet politician and revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, his death in 1953. He held power as General Secret ...
's regime, as well as the Soviet invasion of Finland in November 1939, came to contend that the USSR was a new form of imperialistic class society and was thus not worthy of even critical support from the socialist movement. In February 1940 he wrote ''Science and Style: A Reply to Comrade Trotsky'', in which he broke with
dialectical materialism Dialectical materialism is a materialist theory based upon the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that has found widespread applications in a variety of philosophical disciplines ranging from philosophy of history to philosophy of scien ...
. In this text he responds to Trotsky's request to draw his attention to "those works which should supplant the system of dialectic materialism for the proletariat" by referring to ''
Principia Mathematica The ''Principia Mathematica'' (often abbreviated ''PM'') is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics written by the mathematician–philosophers Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell and published in 1910, 1912, and 1 ...
'' by Russell and Whitehead and "the scientists, mathematicians and logicians now cooperating in the new Encyclopedia of Unified Science". After a protracted discussion inside the SWP, in which the factions argued their case in a series of heated internal discussion bulletins, the special 3rd National Convention of the organization in early April 1940 decided the question in favor of the Cannon majority by a vote of 55–31. Even though the majority sought to avoid a split by offering to continue the debate and to allow proportional representation of the minority on the party's governing National Committee, Shachtman, Burnham, and their supporters resigned from the SWP to launch their own organization, again called the Workers Party. This break also marked the end of Burnham's participation in the radical movement, however. On May 21, 1940, he addressed a letter to the National Committee of the Workers Party resigning from the organization. In it he made it clear the distance he had moved away from
Marxism Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, ...
: In 1941, Burnham wrote a book analyzing the development of economics and society as he saw it, called ''The Managerial Revolution: What is Happening in the World''. The book was included in ''Life'' magazine's list of the 100 outstanding books of 1924–1944.


OSS and ''National Review''

During
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, Burnham took a leave from NYU to work for the
Office of Strategic Services The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the first intelligence agency of the United States, formed during World War II. The OSS was formed as an agency of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) to coordinate espionage activities behind enemy lines ...
(OSS), a forerunner of the
Central Intelligence Agency The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA; ) is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States tasked with advancing national security through collecting and analyzing intelligence from around the world and ...
. Recommended by George F. Kennan, Burnham was invited to lead the semi-autonomous "Political and Psychological Warfare" division of the Office of Policy Coordination. Subsequently, during the
Cold War The Cold War was a period of global Geopolitics, geopolitical rivalry between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies, the capitalist Western Bloc and communist Eastern Bloc, which lasted from 1947 unt ...
, he called for an aggressive strategy against the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
. A contributor to ''
The Freeman ''The Freeman'' (formerly published as ''The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty'' or ''Ideas on Liberty'') was an American libertarian magazine, formerly published by the Foundation for Economic Education (FEE). It was founded in 1950 by John Chambe ...
'' in the early 1950s, he considered the magazine too focused on
economic An economy is an area of the Production (economics), production, Distribution (economics), distribution and trade, as well as Consumption (economics), consumption of Goods (economics), goods and Service (economics), services. In general, it is ...
issues, though it presented a wide range of opinion on the Soviet threat. In ''The Struggle for the World'' (1947), he called for common citizenship between the United States, Great Britain, and the British dominions, as well as a "World Federation" against communism. Burnham thought in terms of a hegemonic world, instead of a balance of power:
A World Federation initiated and led by the United States would be, we have recognized, a World Empire. In this imperial federation, the United States, with a monopoly of atomic weapons, would hold a preponderance of decisive material power over all the rest of the world. In world politics, that is to say, there would not be a balance of power.
In 1955, he helped William F. Buckley Jr. found ''
National Review ''National Review'' is an American conservative editorial magazine, focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955. Its editor-in-chief is Rich L ...
'' magazine, which from the start took positions in
foreign policy Foreign policy, also known as external policy, is the set of strategies and actions a State (polity), state employs in its interactions with other states, unions, and international entities. It encompasses a wide range of objectives, includ ...
consistent with Burnham's own. In the ''National Review'', he wrote a column titled "Third World War," which referred to the Cold War. Burnham became a lifelong contributor to the journal, and Buckley referred to him as "the number one intellectual influence on ''National Review'' since the day of its founding." His approach to foreign policy has caused some to regard him as the first " neoconservative," although Burnham's ideas have been an important influence on both the paleoconservative and neoconservative factions of the American Right. In 1983, President
Ronald Reagan Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. He was a member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party a ...
awarded him the
Presidential Medal of Freedom The Presidential Medal of Freedom is the highest civilian award of the United States, alongside the Congressional Gold Medal. It is an award bestowed by decision of the president of the United States to "any person recommended to the President ...
. In early November 1978 he suffered a stroke which affected his health and
short-term memory Short-term memory (or "primary" or "active memory") is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short interval. For example, short-term memory holds a phone number that has just been recit ...
. He died of kidney and liver cancer at home in
Kent, Connecticut Kent is a town in Litchfield County, Connecticut, United States. Located alongside the border with New York (state), New York, the town's population was 3,019 according to the 2020 United States census, 2020 census. The town is part of the Northwe ...
, on July 28, 1987. He was buried in Kent on August 1, 1987.


Ideas


''The Managerial Revolution''


Later writings

In ''The Machiavellians'', he developed his theory that the emerging new élite would prosper better if it retained some democratic trappings—political opposition, a free press, and a controlled "circulation of the élites." His 1964 book ''Suicide of the West'' became a classic text for the post-war conservative movement in American politics, proclaiming Burnham's new interest in traditional moral values,
classical liberal Classical liberalism is a political tradition and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics and civil liberties under the rule of law, with special emphasis on individual autonomy, limited government, eco ...
economics and
anti-communism Anti-communism is Political movement, political and Ideology, ideological opposition to communism, communist beliefs, groups, and individuals. Organized anti-communism developed after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia, and it reached global ...
. He defined political ideologies as syndromes afflicting their proponents with various internal contradictions. His works greatly influenced paleoconservative author Sam Francis, who wrote two books about Burnham, and based his political theories upon the "managerial revolution" and the resulting managerial state.


In fiction

British writer
George Orwell Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950) was an English novelist, poet, essayist, journalist, and critic who wrote under the pen name of George Orwell. His work is characterised by lucid prose, social criticism, opposition to a ...
was inspired by Burnham's ''The Managerial Revolution'' and his explanation of power, which informed Orwell's 1949 novel ''
Nineteen Eighty-Four ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' (also published as ''1984'') is a dystopian novel and cautionary tale by the English writer George Orwell. It was published on 8 June 1949 by Secker & Warburg as Orwell's ninth and final completed book. Thematically ...
''. Orwell noted in 1945, "For Burnham's geographical picture of the new world has turned out to be correct. More and more obviously the surface of the earth is being parceled off into three great empires ...". The superpowers of Oceania, Eurasia, and Eastasia in the novel are partly influenced by Burnham's assessment of Roosevelt's America, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union as being managerial states. In 1946 Orwell, summarized Burnham's managerial revolution and outlined the geopolitical landscape of ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'': While Orwell partly agreed with Burnham's analysis, he never fully accepted Burnham's attitude towards Machiavellian managerial power. This unresolved thought helped to inspire the character of O'Brien, who talks about power and regimes in ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.


Works

Books * ''Introduction to Philosophical Analysis'' (with Philip Wheelwright). New York:
Henry Holt and Company Henry Holt and Company is an American book-publishing company based in New York City. One of the oldest publishers in the United States, it was founded in 1866 by Henry Holt (publisher), Henry Holt and Frederick Leypoldt. The company publishes in ...
, 1932. * ''The Managerial Revolution: What is Happening in the World''. New York: John Day Co., 1941. * '' The Machiavellians: Defenders of Freedom''. New York: John Day Co., 1943. .
''The Struggle for the World''.
New York: John Day Co., 1947. *
The Case for De Gaulle: A Dialogue Between André Malraux and James Burnham
'. New York:
Random House Random House is an imprint and publishing group of Penguin Random House. Founded in 1927 by businessmen Bennett Cerf and Donald Klopfer as an imprint of Modern Library, it quickly overtook Modern Library as the parent imprint. Over the foll ...
, 1948. *
The Coming Defeat of Communism
'. New York: John Day Co., 1949. *
Containment or Liberation? An Inquiry into the Aims of United States Foreign Policy
'. New York: John Day Co., 1953. * ''The Web of Subversion: Underground Networks''. New York: John Day Co., 1954. * ''Congress and the American Tradition''. Chicago: Regnery, 1959. . * ''Bear and Dragon: What is the Relation Between Moscow and Peking?'' New York:
National Review ''National Review'' is an American conservative editorial magazine, focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955. Its editor-in-chief is Rich L ...
, in cooperation with the American-Asian Exchange, 1960.
''Suicide of the West: An Essay on the Meaning and Destiny of Liberalism''.
New York: John Day Co., 1964. *
The War We Are In: The Last Decade and the Next
'. New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1967. Book contributions * Introduction. In: Dobriansky, Lev E. ''Veblenism: A New Critique''. Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1957. Pamphlets
''War and the Workers''
(as John West). New York:
Workers Party of the United States The Workers Party of the United States (WPUS) was established in December 1934 by a merger of the American Workers Party (AWP) led by A.J. Muste and the Trotskyist Communist League of America (CLA) led by James P. Cannon. The party was disso ...
, 1935
Marxists

''Why Did They "Confess"? A Study of the Radek-Piatakov Trial''.
New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1937


''The People's Front: The New Betrayal''.
New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1937

* ''How to Fight War: Isolation, Collective Security, Relentless Class Struggle?'' New York: Socialist Workers Party & Young Peoples Socialist League ( 4th Internationalists), 1938.
''Let the People Vote on War!''
New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1939?.

(with
Leon Trotsky Lev Davidovich Bronstein ( – 21 August 1940), better known as Leon Trotsky,; ; also transliterated ''Lyev'', ''Trotski'', ''Trockij'' and ''Trotzky'' was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician, and political theorist. He was a key figure ...
, Joseph Hansen and William Warde). New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1942. Public speaking * ''Why Does a Country Go Communist? An address delivered at the Indian Congress for Cultural Freedom on March 31, 1951''. Bombay: Democratic Research Service, 1951. Selected articles * "The Case Against Adlai Stevenson." '' American Mercury'', Vol. 76, October 1952, pp. 11–19. * "Can Washington Conduct Political Warfare?" '' American Mercury'', December 1952, pp. 10-24. * "Does ADA Run the New Frontier?"
National Review ''National Review'' is an American conservative editorial magazine, focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955. Its editor-in-chief is Rich L ...
, Vol. 14, No. 18, May 7, 1963, pp. 355–62.


See also

* Circulation of elites * Sam Francis *
Paul Gottfried Paul Edward Gottfried (born November 21, 1941) is an American paleoconservative political philosopher, historian, and writer. He is a former Professor of Humanities at Elizabethtown College in Pennsylvania. He is editor-in-chief of the paleocon ...


References


Sources

*


Further reading

* David T. Byrne, ''James Burnham: An Intellectual Biography'', Northern Illinois University Press, 2025 * Samuel Francis,
Power and History, The Political Thought of James Burnham.
' London: Claridge Press, 1999. * Grant Havers, "James Burnham's Elite Theory and the Postwar American Right," ''Telos'' 154 (Spring 2011): 29–50. * Benjamin Guy Hoffman,
The Political Thought of James Burnham.
' PhD dissertation. University of Michigan, 1969. * Daniel Kelly,
James Burnham and the Struggle for the World: A Life.
' Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002. *
C. Wright Mills Charles Wright Mills (August 28, 1916 – March 20, 1962) was an American Sociology, sociologist, and a professor of sociology at Columbia University from 1946 until his death in 1962. Mills published widely in both popular and intellectual jour ...
and Hans Gerth, "A Marx for the Managers", 1942. Reprinted in ''Power, Politics, and People: The Collected Essays of C. Wright Mills'' edited by Irving Horowitz. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967. *
George Orwell Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950) was an English novelist, poet, essayist, journalist, and critic who wrote under the pen name of George Orwell. His work is characterised by lucid prose, social criticism, opposition to a ...
, " Second Thoughts on James Burnham," ''Polemic,'' No. 3, May 1946. *
Paul Sweezy Paul Marlor Sweezy (April 10, 1910 – February 27, 2004) was a Marxist economist, political activist, publisher, and founding editor of the long-running magazine ''Monthly Review''. He is best remembered for his contributions to economic theory ...
, "The Illusion of the 'Managerial Revolution,'" ''Science & Society,'' vol. 6, no. 1 (Winter 1942), pp. 1–23
In JSTOR


External links

*

at
Marxists Internet Archive Marxists Internet Archive, also known as MIA or Marxists.org, is a non-profit online encyclopedia that hosts a multilingual library (created in 1990) of the works of communist, anarchist, and socialist writers, such as Karl Marx, Friedrich Enge ...

Register of the James Burnham Papers, 1928-1983
the
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(OAC) initiative of the
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Obituary of James Burnham
''National Review'', September 11, 1987

By
Victor Serge Victor Serge (; born Viktor Lvovich Kibalchich, ; 30 December 1890 – 17 November 1947) was a Belgian-born Russian revolutionary, novelist, poet, historian, journalist, and translator. Originally an anarchist, he joined the Bolsheviks in Janu ...
. At Victor Serge Archive (
Marxists Internet Archive Marxists Internet Archive, also known as MIA or Marxists.org, is a non-profit online encyclopedia that hosts a multilingual library (created in 1990) of the works of communist, anarchist, and socialist writers, such as Karl Marx, Friedrich Enge ...
)
James Burnham, the First Cold Warrior
by Francis P. Sempa * {{DEFAULTSORT:Burnham, James 1905 births 1987 deaths 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford American anti-communist propagandists American male non-fiction writers American segregationists American sociologists American political philosophers Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism Critics of dialectical materialism History of United States isolationism Members of the American Workers Party Members of the Socialist Party of America Members of the Socialist Workers Party (United States) Members of the Workers Party (United States) Members of the Workers Party of the United States National Review people New Right (United States) Philosophers from Chicago People of the Office of Strategic Services Philosophers of history Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Princeton University alumni New York University faculty Writers from Chicago Catholics from Illinois Former Marxists People associated with Kultura (magazine) People of the Central Intelligence Agency