Jacob Gotfried Haafner ( Halle, 13 May 1754 –

Amsterdam Amsterdam ( , ; ; ) is the capital of the Netherlands, capital and Municipalities of the Netherlands, largest city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It has a population of 933,680 in June 2024 within the city proper, 1,457,018 in the City Re ...

, 4 September 1809) was a German-Dutch

travel writer The genre of travel literature or travelogue encompasses outdoor literature, guide books, nature writing, and travel memoirs. History Early examples of travel literature include the '' Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' (generally considered ...

who lived in and wrote extensively on

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

and

Ceylon Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...

. His travelogues were noted for their Romantic undertones, lively descriptions of Indian cultures and peoples, as well as criticisms of European

colonialism Colonialism is the control of another territory, natural resources and people by a foreign group. Colonizers control the political and tribal power of the colonised territory. While frequently an Imperialism, imperialist project, colonialism c ...

slavery Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...

, and cultural domination. In 1805, Haafner entered the annual essay contest organized by

Teylers Eerste Genootschap Teylers Eerste Genootschap (English: ''Teyler's First Society''), also known as the Godgeleerd Genootschap (''Theological Society'') is one of the two societies founded within the Teylers Stichting as a result of the will of the Dutch 18th-centur ...

(English: Teylers Theological Society). His anti-colonialist, counter-missionary treatise, titled ''Onderzoek naar het nut der zendelingen en zendelings-genootschappen'' (English: ''Examination of the usefulness of missionaries and missionary societies''), was selected as winner and published in 1807 amidst public consternation.

Early life (1754–1771)

Jacob Gotfried Haafner was born in Halle,

Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...

on 13 May 1754 to a French father and a German mother. The family moved to

Emden Emden () is an Independent city (Germany), independent town and seaport in Lower Saxony in the north-west of Germany and lies on the River Ems (river), Ems, close to the Germany–Netherlands border, Netherlands border. It is the main town in t ...

in northwest Germany where Jacob's father, Matthias, worked as a ship's surgeon for the

Emden Company The Emden Company was a Prussian trading company which was established on 24 May 1751 to trade primarily with the city of Canton in China. Its full name was the Royal Prussian Asiatic Company in Emden to Canton and China (''Königlich Preußi ...

, then to

in 1763, when he joined the

Dutch East India Company The United East India Company ( ; VOC ), commonly known as the Dutch East India Company, was a chartered company, chartered trading company and one of the first joint-stock companies in the world. Established on 20 March 1602 by the States Ge ...

. Shortly before arriving in

Cape Town Cape Town is the legislature, legislative capital city, capital of South Africa. It is the country's oldest city and the seat of the Parliament of South Africa. Cape Town is the country's List of municipalities in South Africa, second-largest ...

on a trip to Asia in 1766, however, Matthias Haffner died, leaving 12-year-old Jacob in the care of a foster family in the

Cape Colony The Cape Colony (), also known as the Cape of Good Hope, was a British Empire, British colony in present-day South Africa named after the Cape of Good Hope. It existed from 1795 to 1802, and again from 1806 to 1910, when it united with three ...

. In 1768, Jacob Haafner enlisted as a

cabin boy A cabin boy or ship's boy is a boy or young man who waits on the officers and passengers of a ship, especially running errands for the captain. The modern merchant navy successor to the cabin boy is the steward's assistant. Duties Cabin boys ...

on a ship bound for Batavia (modern

Jakarta Jakarta (; , Betawi language, Betawi: ''Jakartè''), officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta (; ''DKI Jakarta'') and formerly known as Batavia, Dutch East Indies, Batavia until 1949, is the capital and largest city of Indonesia and ...

, then capital of the

Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies (; ), was a Dutch Empire, Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, declared independence on 17 Au ...

). There, he worked as a tutor to the children of a high-ranking VOC official. In 1770, he returned to

and became an apprentice to painter and engraver Reinier Vinkeles.

Life in India (1771-1787)

In June 1771, Haafner enlisted as a

VOC VOC, VoC or voc may refer to: Science and technology * Open-circuit voltage (VOC), the voltage between two terminals when there is no external load connected * Variant of concern, a category used during the assessment of a new variant of a virus * ...

servant and departed for

Nagapattinam Nagapattinam (''nākappaṭṭinam'', previously spelt Nagapatnam or Negapatam) is a town in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Nagapattinam district. The town came to prominence during the period of Medieval ...

, the capital of

Dutch Coromandel Coromandel was a governorate of the Dutch East India Company on the coasts of the Coromandel region from 1610, until the company's liquidation in 1798. Dutch presence in the region began with the capture of Pulicat from the Portuguese in Goa and ...

from 1660 to 1781. Tired of the sailor's life, he settled in the town and worked in the factory as an assistant bookkeeper from 1773 to 1778, learning

Tamil Tamil may refer to: People, culture and language * Tamils, an ethno-linguistic group native to India, Sri Lanka, and some other parts of Asia **Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka ** Myanmar or Burmese Tamils, Tamil people of Ind ...

and conducting private trade on the side. In 1779, he was appointed as secretary-bookkeeper to a branch office in

Sadras Sadras is a fortress town located on India's Coromandel Coast in Chengalpattu district, 70 km south of Chennai in Tamil Nadu state. ''Sadras'' is the anglicised form of the ancient town of ''Sadurangapattinam''. History and etymology An in ...

patnam. During the

Fourth Anglo-Dutch War The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (; 1780–1784) was a conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. The war, contemporary with the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), broke out over British and Dutch disagreements on t ...

(1780-1784), he was taken prisoner and held in

Madras Chennai, also known as Madras ( its official name until 1996), is the capital and largest city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost state of India. It is located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. According to the 2011 Indian ce ...

, where he witnessed the struggle between the British army and

Hyder Ali Hyder Ali (''Haidar'alī''; ; 1720 – 7 December 1782) was the Sultan and ''de facto'' ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Born as Hyder Ali, he distinguished himself as a soldier, eventually drawing the attention of Mysore's ...

, the Sultan and ''de facto'' ruler of the

Kingdom of Mysore The Kingdom of Mysore was a geopolitical realm in southern India founded in around 1399 in the vicinity of the modern-day city of Mysore and prevailed until 1950. The territorial boundaries and the form of government transmuted substantially ...

, and the famine that crippled the city in 1782. Released at the end of the year, he arrived at

(present-day

Sri Lanka Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...

) in early 1783. From June to September, he embarked on a hiking tour of the island from

Jaffna Jaffna (, ; , ) is the capital city of the Northern Province, Sri Lanka, Northern Province of Sri Lanka. It is the administrative headquarters of the Jaffna District located on a Jaffna Peninsula, peninsula of the same name. With a population o ...

patnam to

Colombo Colombo, ( ; , ; , ), is the executive and judicial capital and largest city of Sri Lanka by population. The Colombo metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of 5.6 million, and 752,993 within the municipal limits. It is the ...

, then left for

Calcutta Kolkata, also known as Calcutta (List of renamed places in India#West Bengal, its official name until 2001), is the capital and largest city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of West Bengal. It lies on the eastern ba ...

West Bengal West Bengal (; Bengali language, Bengali: , , abbr. WB) is a States and union territories of India, state in the East India, eastern portion of India. It is situated along the Bay of Bengal, along with a population of over 91 million inhabi ...

. At the centre of British colonial administration, he found work as a bookkeeper to the former Governor of Benares, Joseph Fowke. Having developed a profound interest in Indian culture and studied a variety of Indian languages (

Urdu Urdu (; , , ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia. It is the Languages of Pakistan, national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan. In India, it is an Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of Indi ...

Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...

Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of South India ** Telugu literature, is the body of works written in the Telugu language. * Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Tel ...

, and

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...

), he became acquainted with

The Asiatic Society The Asiatic Society is an organisation founded during the Company rule in India to enhance and further the cause of " Oriental research" (in this case, research into India and the surrounding regions). It was founded by the philologist Will ...

, founded in 1784 by

Sir William Jones Sir William Jones (28 September 1746 – 27 April 1794) was a British philologist, orientalist, Indologist and judge. Born in Westminster, London to Welsh mathematician William Jones, he moved to the Bengal Presidency where Jones served as ...

. In 1786, he traveled southwards along the

Coromandel coast The Coromandel Coast is a coastal region along the southeastern front of the Indian peninsula. Its delimitations are numerous, but generally admitted to be bounded by the Krishna River, Krishna river River mouth, mouth to the north, the Bay of B ...

through

Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is the southernmost States and union territories of India, state of India. The List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of Indi ...

and

Orissa Odisha (), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is a state located in Eastern India. It is the eighth-largest state by area, and the eleventh-largest by population, with over 41 million inhabitants. The state also has the thir ...

, covering more than 600 miles by

palanquin The litter is a class of wheelless vehicles, a type of human-powered transport, for the transport of people. Smaller litters may take the form of open chairs or beds carried by two or more carriers, some being enclosed for protection from the el ...

. From January to September, he visited shrines and temples, making drawings of ancient monuments such as the temple ruins at Mammallapuram, which he called "one of the most beautiful and largest palaces of istime" and compared with the "miracles of Egypt". Devedaschies-Haafner

The result of this journey is described in ''Reize in eenen Palanquin'' (English: ''Travels in a palanquin''), a narrative work of 2 volumes on the Indian landscape, people, religious customs, and ancient architecture. To a certain extent, the writer idealized the subcontinent while criticizing the English, among others, for causing havoc and suffering among the local population: "Rascals, squanderers, criminals, bankrupts, and other bad people, every one runs to the Indies, to oppress the poor Indians, to plunder them, and to kill them." The tragic death of Mamia, a temple dancer with whom Haafner had fallen in love, ended his journey. He departed shortly afterwards, traveling via

Mauritius Mauritius, officially the Republic of Mauritius, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, about off the southeastern coast of East Africa, east of Madagascar. It includes the main island (also called Mauritius), as well as Rodrigues, Ag ...

, the Cape of Good Hope, France, and Germany, back to Amsterdam in 1790.

Writing in Amsterdam (1787–1809)

Upon his return to Europe, Haafner invested his fortune in French bonds, which became almost worthless after the

Revolution In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements ...

. To provide for his family, he opened a pipe shop. In 1796, he applied unsuccessfully for a job with the directors of the

His travel stories were published between 1806 and 1821, of which three were published posthumously by his eldest son, Christian Mathias. Together, the five travelogues constituted an autobiography: *''Lotgevallen en vroegere zeereizen'' (English: ''Adventures and Early Sea Voyages'', 1820), narrating Haafner's first journey with his father and his time in South Africa and Jakarta; *''Lotgevallen op eene reize van Madras over Tranquebaar naar het eiland Ceylon'' (English: ''Adventures on a Journey from Madras via Tranquebar to Ceylon'', 1806), his stay in Negapatnam and Sadras, imprisonment and escape from Madras, and adventures in Ceylon; *''Reize te voet door het eiland Ceilon'' (English: ''Travels On Foot Through the Island of Ceylon'', 1810), his journey through Sri Lanka in 1783; *''Reize in eenen Palanquin'' (English: ''Travels in a Palanquin'', 1808, two volumes), his travels along the Coromandel coast and love affair with Mamia; *''Reize naar Bengalen en terugreize naar Europa'' (English: ''Journey to Bengal and Return-voyage to Europe'', 1822), his stay in West Bengal and return-voyage to Europe. They were translated into German (1806, 1809, and 1816), French (1811), Swedish (1811), English (1821), and Danish (1821). In a French publisher's note, Haafner was lauded as an "original thinker" with a "brilliant and spirited" writing style; an English reviewer wrote: "There is an air of sprightliness about Mr. Haafner, which certainly belies the place of his nativity." In addition, Haafner worked on a translation of the

epic Epic commonly refers to: * Epic poetry, a long narrative poem celebrating heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation * Epic film, a genre of film defined by the spectacular presentation of human drama on a grandiose scale Epic(s) ...

, ''

Ramayana The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...

'', which was eventually published in Amsterdam in 1823.

Teylers Eerste Genootschap: 1805 essay contest

In 1805, Haafner entered the annual essay contest organized by

(English: ''Teyler's First Society''), also known as the ''Godgeleerd Genootschap'' (''Theological Society''), for a cash prize to the question: What has been the use of

missionary work A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thoma ...

in the overseas world in the past and what could possibly be done to improve this work in the future? Haafner Verhandelingen

In his submission, titled "Onderzoek naar het nut der zendelingen en zendelings-genootschappen" (English: Examination of the usefulness of missionaries and missionary societies), Haafner condemned the behavior of missionaries in the colonies and argued for the complete withdrawal of all imperial powers, citing

Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778), known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' Voltaire (, ; ), was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, philosopher (''philosophe''), satirist, and historian. Famous for his wit ...

Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher ('' philosophe''), writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects ...

Bartolomé de las Casas Bartolomé de las Casas, Dominican Order, OP ( ; ); 11 November 1484 – 18 July 1566) was a Spanish clergyman, writer, and activist best known for his work as an historian and social reformer. He arrived in Hispaniola as a layman, then became ...

Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg (24 June 1683 – 23 February 1719) was a member of the Lutheran clergy and the first Pietist missionary to India. Early life Ziegenbalg was born in Pulsnitz, Saxony, on 24 July 1683 in a devout Christian family. His ...

Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix, S.J. (; ; 24 or 29 October 1682 – 1 February 1761) was a French Jesuit priest, traveller, and historian, often considered the first historian of New France. Name Charlevoix's name also appears as Pier ...

, and

Thomas Gage General Thomas Gage (10 March 1718/192 April 1787) was a British Army officer and colonial administrator best known for his many years of service in North America, including serving as Commander-in-Chief, North America during the early days ...

. The essay, eventually published as the contest's winner, prompted heated debates in Dutch missionary circles. Detractors accused Haafner of relying upon inadequate historical knowledge and false conceptions, and of moral corruption.

Early life (1754–1771)

Life in India (1771-1787)

Writing in Amsterdam (1787–1809)

Teylers Eerste Genootschap: 1805 essay contest

References

Further reading