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Jacob Dolson Cox Jr. (October 27, 1828August 4, 1900), was a statesman, lawyer, Union Army general during the
American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...
, Republican politician from
Ohio Ohio ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Lake Erie to the north, Pennsylvania to the east, West Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Indiana to the ...
, Liberal Republican Party founder, educator, author, and recognized
microbiologist A microbiologist (from Greek ) is a scientist who studies microscopic life forms and processes. This includes study of the growth, interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi, and some types of par ...
. He served as president of the
University of Cincinnati The University of Cincinnati (UC or Cincinnati, informally Cincy) is a public university, public research university in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. It was founded in 1819 and had an enrollment of over 53,000 students in 2024, making it the ...
, the 28th
governor of Ohio A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the type of political region or polity, a ''governor'' ma ...
and as
United States Secretary of the Interior The United States secretary of the interior is the head of the United States Department of the Interior. The secretary and the Department of the Interior are responsible for the management and conservation of most federal land along with natura ...
. As Governor of Ohio, Cox sided for a time with President
Andrew Johnson Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808July 31, 1875) was the 17th president of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. The 16th vice president, he assumed the presidency following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. Johnson was a South ...
's
Reconstruction Reconstruction may refer to: Politics, history, and sociology *Reconstruction (law), the transfer of a company's (or several companies') business to a new company *''Perestroika'' (Russian for "reconstruction"), a late 20th century Soviet Union ...
plan and was against
African American African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly also called Afro-Americans, are an Race and ethnicity in the United States, American racial and ethnic group that consists of Americans who have total or partial ancestry from an ...
suffrage in the South, though he supported it in Ohio. However, Cox increasingly expressed racist and segregationist viewpoints, advocating a separate colony for blacks to "work out their own salvation."Foner, Eric (1988). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877, pp. 222–23. New York: Harper & Row. Seeing himself caught between Johnson and the Radical Republicans, Cox decided not to run for reelection. He stayed out of politics for a year, though both Sherman and Grant advocated that Cox replace Stanton as Secretary of War as a means of stemming the demands for Johnson's impeachment. But Johnson declined. When Ulysses S. Grant became president, he nominated Cox Secretary of Interior, and Cox immediately accepted. Secretary of Interior Cox implemented the first civil service reform in a federal government department, including examinations for most clerks. Grant initially supported Cox and civil service reform, creating America's first Civil Service Commission. However, Cox was opposed by Republican Party managers, who ultimately convinced Grant to cease civil service reforms in the Interior, a large department coveted for its vast Congressional patronage. President Grant and Secretary Cox were at odds over the fraudulent McGarahan Claims and the
Dominican Republic The Dominican Republic is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean Sea in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean. It shares a Maritime boundary, maritime border with Puerto Rico to the east and ...
annexation treaty. Secretary Cox advocated a lasting, honest, and comprehensive Indian policy legislated by Congress after the Piegan Indian massacre. Cox resigned as Secretary of Interior having been unable to gain Grant's support over civil service reform. Although Cox was a reformer, Grant had believed Cox had overstepped his authority as Secretary of Interior and had undermined his authority as president. In 1871 Cox helped found the Liberal Republicans in opposition to Grant's renomination. In 1876, Cox returned to politics and served one term as a United States Congressman from Ohio. Congressman Cox supported President Hayes's reform efforts, but his term as Congressman was unsuccessful at establishing permanent Civil Service reform. Cox was elected as a member to the
American Philosophical Society The American Philosophical Society (APS) is an American scholarly organization and learned society founded in 1743 in Philadelphia that promotes knowledge in the humanities and natural sciences through research, professional meetings, publicat ...
in 1870. Cox was elected U.S. Representative (Ohio) and served in Congress from 1877 to 1879. Afterward, Cox never returned to active politics. Cox served as president and receiver of a railroad, Dean of Cincinnati Law School, and as president of the University of Cincinnati. Cox also studied microscopy and made hundreds of photo-micrographs, and in 1881 he was elected fellow of the
Royal Microscopical Society The Royal Microscopical Society (RMS) is a learned society for the promotion of microscopy. It was founded in 1839 as the Microscopical Society of London making it the oldest organisation of its kind in the world. In 1866, the Society gained it ...
. In 1882, Cox started a series of books he authored on
Civil War A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
campaigns, which remain today respected histories and memoirs. After Cox retired in 1897, he died in Massachusetts in 1900. Throughout the 20th century, Cox's life was mostly forgotten by historians, however, there has been renewed interest during the 21st century in Cox's military career as Union general during the
Civil War A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
, and his implementation of civil service while Secretary of Interior under President Grant, the first cabinet officer to do so in U.S. history.


Early years and education

Jacob Dolson Cox was born in
Montreal Montreal is the List of towns in Quebec, largest city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Quebec, the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-largest in Canada, and the List of North American cit ...
(then located in the British colonial Province of
Lower Canada The Province of Lower Canada () was a British colonization of the Americas, British colony on the lower Saint Lawrence River and the shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence established in 1791 and abolished in 1841. It covered the southern portion o ...
) on October 27, 1828. His father and mother respectively were Jacob Dolson Cox and Thedia Redelia (Kenyon) Cox, both Americans and residents of
New York New York most commonly refers to: * New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States * New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York New York may also refer to: Places United Kingdom * ...
. His father Jacob was of Dutch origin, descended from Hanoverian emigrant Michael Cox (Koch) who arrived in New York in 1702. His mother Thedia was descended from Revolutionary War Connecticut soldier Payne Kenyon who was there when British General
John Burgoyne General (United Kingdom), General John "Gentleman Johnny" Burgoyne (24 February 1722 – 4 August 1792) was a British Army officer, playwright and politician who sat in the House of Commons of Great Britain from 1761 to 1792. He first saw acti ...
surrendered at Saratoga in 1777. Thedia also was descended from Revolutionary War Connecticut soldier Freeman Allyn, who fought against
Benedict Arnold Benedict Arnold (#Brandt, Brandt (1994), p. 4June 14, 1801) was an American-born British military officer who served during the American Revolutionary War. He fought with distinction for the American Continental Army and rose to the rank of ...
at Groton. The Allyns were the early settlers of Salem and Manchester,
Massachusetts Massachusetts ( ; ), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Maine to its east, Connecticut and Rhode ...
. Thedia was additionally descended from the Elder William Brewster who emigrated to the
Plymouth Colony Plymouth Colony (sometimes spelled Plimouth) was the first permanent English colony in New England from 1620 and the third permanent English colony in America, after Newfoundland and the Jamestown Colony. It was settled by the passengers on t ...
on the ''
Mayflower ''Mayflower'' was an English sailing ship that transported a group of English families, known today as the Pilgrims, from England to the New World in 1620. After 10 weeks at sea, ''Mayflower'', with 102 passengers and a crew of about 30, reac ...
'' in 1620. The elder Jacob was a New York building contractor and superintended the roof construction of the Church of Notre Dame in Montreal. Cox returned with his parents to New York City a year later. His early education included private readings with a Columbia College student. His family suffered a financial setback during the
Panic of 1837 The Panic of 1837 was a financial crisis in the United States that began a major depression (economics), depression which lasted until the mid-1840s. Profits, prices, and wages dropped, westward expansion was stalled, unemployment rose, and pes ...
, and Cox was unable to afford a college education and obtain a law degree. New York State law mandated that an alternative to college would be to work as an apprentice in the legal firm for seven years before entering the bar. In 1842, Cox entered into an apprenticeship for a legal firm and worked for two years. Having changed his mind on becoming a lawyer, Cox worked as a bookkeeper in a brokerage firm and studied mathematics and classical languages in his off hours. In 1846 he enrolled at Oberlin College in the preparatory school having been influenced by the Reverends Samuel D. Cochran and
Charles Grandison Finney Charles Grandison Finney (August 29, 1792 – August 16, 1875) was a controversial American Presbyterian minister and leader in the Second Great Awakening in the United States. He has been called the "Father of Old Christian revival, Revivalism ...
, leaders of
Oberlin College Oberlin College is a Private university, private Liberal arts colleges in the United States, liberal arts college and conservatory of music in Oberlin, Ohio, United States. Founded in 1833, it is the oldest Mixed-sex education, coeducational lib ...
to study theology and become a minister. Oberlin College was a progressive educational facility that was coeducational and admitted students of different races. He graduated from Oberlin with a degree in theology in 1850 or 1851. After a disagreement with his father-in-law over theology, Cox left his ministerial studies and became superintendent of the
Warren, Ohio Warren is a city in Trumbull County, Ohio, United States, and its county seat. The population was 39,201 at the 2020 United States census, 2020 census. Located along the Mahoning River, Warren lies approximately northwest of Youngstown, Ohio, Y ...
, school system. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1853.


Marriage and family

While attending Oberlin, Cox married the eldest daughter of college president Finney in 1849; at age 19, Helen Clarissa Finney was already a widow with a small son. The couple lived with the president, but Cox and his father-in-law became estranged due to theological disputes. Cox was the father of the painter Kenyon Cox; his grandson, Allyn Cox, was a noted muralist.


Political and military career

Cox was a Whig and had voted for
Winfield Scott Winfield Scott (June 13, 1786May 29, 1866) was an American military commander and political candidate. He served as Commanding General of the United States Army from 1841 to 1861, and was a veteran of the War of 1812, American Indian Wars, Mexica ...
in 1852, having strong family
abolitionist Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the political movement to end slavery and liberate enslaved individuals around the world. The first country to fully outlaw slavery was Kingdom of France, France in 1315, but it was later used ...
ties. As the Whig party dissolved, in 1855 Cox helped to organize the Republican Party in Ohio and stumped for its candidates in counties surrounding Warren. Cox was elected to the Ohio State Senate in 1859 and formed a political alliance with Senator and future
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...
James A. Garfield, and with Governor Salmon P. Chase. While in the legislature, he accepted a commission with the Ohio Militia as a brigadier general and spent much of the winter of 1860–61 studying military science.


Civil War

At the start of the war, Cox was the father of six children (of the eight he and Helen eventually had), but he chose to enter Federal service as an Ohio volunteer. Cox had remained a member of the Ohio state Senate when the Civil War broke out at the Battle of Fort Sumter. Cox joined the Union Army to fulfill Ohio's Union quota of troops. On April 3, 1861, Cox was appointed Brigadier General of Ohio Volunteers by Ohio Governor William Dennision. His first assignment was to command a recruiting camp near Columbus, and then the Kanawha Brigade of the
Department of the Ohio The Department of the Ohio was an administrative military district created by the United States War Department early in the American Civil War to administer the troops in the Northern states near the Ohio River. 1st Department 1861–1862 Gene ...
. His brigade joined the Department of Western Virginia and fought successfully in the early Kanawha Valley campaign under Maj. Gen.
George B. McClellan George Brinton McClellan (December 3, 1826 – October 29, 1885) was an American military officer and politician who served as the 24th governor of New Jersey and as Commanding General of the United States Army from November 1861 to March 186 ...
. In 1862 the brigade moved to
Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly known as Washington or D.C., is the capital city and federal district of the United States. The city is on the Potomac River, across from Virginia, and shares land borders with ...
, and was attached to John Pope's Army of Virginia, but was delayed by McClellan and so did not see action at the
Second Battle of Bull Run The Second Battle of Bull Run or Battle of Second Manassas was fought August 28–30, 1862, in Prince William County, Virginia, as part of the American Civil War. It was the culmination of the Northern Virginia Campaign waged by Confederate ...
with the rest of the army. At the beginning of the
Maryland Campaign The Maryland campaign (or Antietam campaign) occurred September 4–20, 1862, during the American Civil War. The campaign was Confederate States Army, Confederate General (CSA), General Robert E. Lee's first invasion of the Northern United Stat ...
, Cox's brigade became the
Kanawha Division The Kanawha Division was a Union Army division (military), division which could trace its origins back to a brigade originally commanded by Jacob D. Cox. This division served in western Virginia and Maryland and was at times led by such famous pe ...
of the IX Corps of the
Army of the Potomac The Army of the Potomac was the primary field army of the Union army in the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War. It was created in July 1861 shortly after the First Battle of Bull Run and was disbanded in June 1865 following the Battle of ...
. In the Maryland campaign, Cox's men took the important city of Frederick, Maryland, and Cox led the assault on the Confederates on September 14, 1862, at the
Battle of South Mountain The Battle of South Mountain, known in several early Southern United States, Southern accounts as the Battle of Boonsboro Gap, was fought on September 14, 1862, as part of the Maryland campaign of the American Civil War. Three pitched battles ...
. When corps commander Maj. Gen. Jesse L. Reno was killed at South Mountain, Cox assumed command of the IX Corps. He suggested to Maj. Gen.
Ambrose Burnside Ambrose Everts Burnside (May 23, 1824 – September 13, 1881) was an American army officer and politician who became a senior Union general in the American Civil War and a three-time Governor of Rhode Island, as well as being a successfu ...
, formally the commander of IX Corps, but who was commanding a two-corps "wing" of the Army, that he be allowed to return to division command, which was more in keeping with his level of military experience. Burnside refused the suggestion but kept Cox under his supervision at the
Battle of Antietam The Battle of Antietam ( ), also called the Battle of Sharpsburg, particularly in the Southern United States, took place during the American Civil War on September 17, 1862, between Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virgi ...
. Burnside allowed Cox to execute all orders from McClellan at the battle, while he remained behind the lines. Cox's advancing IX Corps came within minutes of overwhelming the Confederate right wing at Antietam, when they were hit by A.P. Hill's division, which forced Cox to withdraw closer to Union lines. After Antietam, Cox was appointed major general to rank from October 6, 1862, but this appointment expired the following March when the
United States Senate The United States Senate is a chamber of the Bicameralism, bicameral United States Congress; it is the upper house, with the United States House of Representatives, U.S. House of Representatives being the lower house. Together, the Senate and ...
felt that there were too many generals of this rank already serving. He was later renominated and confirmed on December 7, 1864. Most of 1863 was quiet for Cox, who was assigned to command the District of Ohio, and later the District of
Michigan Michigan ( ) is a peninsular U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, Upper Midwestern United States. It shares water and land boundaries with Minnesota to the northwest, Wisconsin to the west, ...
, in the Department of Ohio. During the
Atlanta Atlanta ( ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and List of municipalities in Georgia (U.S. state), most populous city in the U.S. state of Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia. It is the county seat, seat of Fulton County, Georg ...
, Franklin-Nashville, and
Carolinas The Carolinas, also known simply as Carolina, are the U.S. states of North Carolina and South Carolina considered collectively. They are bordered by Virginia to the north, Tennessee to the west, and Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the southwes ...
campaigns of 1864–65, Cox commanded the 3rd Division of the XXIII Corps of the
Army of the Ohio The Army of the Ohio was the name of two Union Army, Union armies in the American Civil War. The first army became the Army of the Cumberland and the second army was created in 1863. History 1st Army of the Ohio General Orders No. 97 appointed ...
, under Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield. His 3rd Division provided the main effort in the assault at the Battle of Utoy Creek, August 6, 1864. Cox's men broke the Confederate supply line on the Macon and Western Railroad on August 31, leading Confederate General
John Bell Hood John Bell Hood (June 1 or June 29, 1831 – August 30, 1879) was a Confederate general during the American Civil War. Hood's impetuosity led to high losses among his troops as he moved up in rank. Bruce Catton wrote that "the decision to replace ...
to abandon Atlanta. During Hood's Tennessee Campaign, Cox and his troops narrowly escaped being surrounded by Hood at
Spring Hill, Tennessee Spring Hill is a city in Maury and Williamson counties in the U.S. state of Tennessee, located approximately south of Nashville. Its population as of 2022 is 55,800. Spring Hill is recognized as the 4th fastest growing city in Tennessee by th ...
, and he is credited with saving the center of the Union battle line at the
Battle of Franklin The Battle of Franklin was fought on November 30, 1864, in Franklin, Tennessee, as part of the Franklin–Nashville Campaign of the American Civil War. It was one of the worst disasters of the war for the Confederate States Army. Confederate L ...
in November 1864. Cox led the 3rd Division at the Battle of Wilmington in North Carolina, then took command of the District of Beaufort and a Provisional Corps, which he led at the Battle of Wyse Fork, before it was officially designated the XXIII Corps.


Governor of Ohio

Before mustering out of the Army on January 1, 1866, Cox was elected governor of Ohio in October 1865. He served from 1866 to 1868, and post-war issues were dealt with during his tenure. However, his regressive views on African-American suffrage and his earlier endorsement of President
Andrew Johnson Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808July 31, 1875) was the 17th president of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. The 16th vice president, he assumed the presidency following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. Johnson was a South ...
's
Reconstruction Reconstruction may refer to: Politics, history, and sociology *Reconstruction (law), the transfer of a company's (or several companies') business to a new company *''Perestroika'' (Russian for "reconstruction"), a late 20th century Soviet Union ...
policy caused him to decide not to run for reelection, having lacked the ability to resolve the division between Ohio Radical Republicans and President Johnson. Cox viewed opposition towards black suffrage and advocacy of segregation as a winning formula for the Ohio GOP, telling Radical Republican colleague James Garfield regarding racial equality: "On that issue, if made, you will be beaten." Cox then moved to
Cincinnati Cincinnati ( ; colloquially nicknamed Cincy) is a city in Hamilton County, Ohio, United States, and its county seat. Settled in 1788, the city is located on the northern side of the confluence of the Licking River (Kentucky), Licking and Ohio Ri ...
to practice law.


Secretary of the Interior (1869–1870)

180px, Jacob D. Cox
Secretary of Interior
Cox was appointed Secretary of the Interior by President
Ulysses S. Grant Ulysses S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant; April 27, 1822July 23, 1885) was the 18th president of the United States, serving from 1869 to 1877. In 1865, as Commanding General of the United States Army, commanding general, Grant led the Uni ...
upon his March 4, 1869 Inauguration. Cox served from March 5 to October 31, 1870, a total of 575 days in office. Cox was an effective advocate of civil service reform and introduced a merit system and testing for appointees. His nomination was accepted by reformers and he was immediately confirmed by the Senate. Grant initially gave Cox the freedom to run his department as he saw fit "focused on public service as an advocation, not a career." However, after Grant failed to back him up against Republican politicians who thrived on the patronage system then rampant in the Interior Department, Cox resigned. As Secretary of Interior Cox was considered an independent thinker. This countered Grant's instincts as a military general believing Cox was acting insubordinate to his presidency. Grant's own view on Cox's resignation, possibly unfairly, was that, "The trouble was that General Cox thought the Interior Department was the whole government, and that Cox was the Interior Department."


Implemented civil service reform

After the
Mexican–American War The Mexican–American War (Spanish language, Spanish: ''guerra de Estados Unidos-México, guerra mexicano-estadounidense''), also known in the United States as the Mexican War, and in Mexico as the United States intervention in Mexico, ...
the United States acquired more territories and the Interior Department expanded enormously. Cox's responsibilities varied widely, and he administered the Patent, Land, Pensions, and Indian Affairs Offices, the Census, marshalls, and officials of federal court, and was in charge of transcontinental railroads. The growth of the Interior Department had also expanded a spoils system of patronage that many reformers believed was corrupt. The distribution of federal jobs by Congressional legislators was considered vital for their reelection to Congress. Grant required that all applicants to federal jobs apply directly to the Department heads, rather than the president. This gave Cox the authority and opportunity to reform the Interior Department's personnel system. Secretary Cox was an enthusiastic advocate of civil service reform and upon assuming office he was the first federal department head to implement a civil service merit system in a federal department. Cox's reforms were to limit the spoils system and check the expansion of the federal government's power and influence. Cox fired a third of the clerks unqualified to hold office, and he instituted examinations in the Patent and Census Offices for most applicants, while he requested clerks working in the Patent Office to take the examinations to prove they were worthy to hold office. Many clerks resigned on their own rather than take the examinations. Cox even declined to give his brother a job in the Interior, saying he did not want to be charged with nepotism. Cox's moralistic approach to civil service reform would eventually clash with President Grant's practical use of patronage appointment powers. By mid-May 1870, Cox's reforms clashed with the patronage driven political system and its leaders. Congressional Republican committee leaders demanded that Cox give departmental employees the "opportunity" to give political assessments. Cox responded that "no subscriptions to political funds or show of political zeal will secure their retention." Cox made contributions voluntary, but the ability to pass civil service examinations would remain mandatory, to keep their jobs. Cox said that mandatory contributions would be distressful to the employees families financially. The breaking point came between Cox and Congressional patronage powers, when Cox implemented a 30-day paid leave policy on federal employees at the Interior Department, in part used for the fall campaign. Workers would not be paid for extra days off after the 30-day limit. Prior to electric air conditioning, the hot Summer of 1870 caused employees to use up most of their 30-day vacation time, leaving only a few days of paid campaigning. Many clerks complained to party leaders Senator Zachariah Chandler and Senator
Simon Cameron Simon Cameron (March 8, 1799June 26, 1889) was an American businessman and politician who represented Pennsylvania in the United States Senate and served as United States Secretary of War under President Abraham Lincoln at the start of the Ameri ...
, saying they could not campaign, putting the blame on Cox's 30 vacation policy. Cameron was reported to have said, "Damn Secretary Cox ! We'll see the President about this fool business." The pressure from party leaders worked, and on October 3, 1870, Grant overturned Cox's 30 day vacation rule.


Dominican Republic annexation treaty

170px, left, Ulysses S. Grant
President of the United States
Even before Grant became president, an annexationist faction in American politics desired control over the Caribbean islands. William H. Seward, Secretary of State under Lincoln and Johnson, having purchased
Alaska Alaska ( ) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America. Part of the Western United States region, it is one of the two non-contiguous U.S. states, alongside Hawaii. Alaska is also considered to be the north ...
from the Russians and attempted to buy the
Danish West Indies The Danish West Indies () or Danish Virgin Islands () or Danish Antilles were a Danish colony in the Caribbean, consisting of the islands of Saint Thomas with , Saint John () with , Saint Croix with , and Water Island. The islands of St ...
from the Danes, began negotiations to purchase the Dominican Republic, then referred to as Santo Domingo. These negotiations continued under Grant, led by Orville E. Babcock, a confidant who had served on Grant's staff during the Civil War. Grant was initially skeptical, but at the urging of Admiral Porter, who wanted a naval base at Samaná Bay, and Joseph W. Fabens, a New England businessman employed by the Dominican government, Grant examined the matter and became convinced of its wisdom. Grant believed in peaceful expansion of the nation's borders and thought the majority-black island would allow new economic opportunities for freedmen. The acquisition, according to Grant, would ease race relations in the South, clear slavery from
Brazil Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in South America. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by area, fifth-largest country by area and the List of countries and dependencies by population ...
and
Cuba Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...
, and increase American naval power in the Caribbean. 150px, Hamiltion Fish
Secretary of State
Grant sent Babcock to consult with
Buenaventura Báez Ramón Buenaventura Báez Méndez (July 14, 1812March 14, 1884), was a Dominican conservative politician and military figure. He was president of the Dominican Republic for five nonconsecutive terms. His rule was characterized by corruption and ...
, the pro-annexation Dominican president, to see if the proposal was practical; Babcock returned with a draft treaty of annexation in December 1869. Secretary of State Hamilton Fish told Cox in a private meeting that Babcock had no authorization to make such a treaty. Going against his normal protocol of listening to each Cabinet member, Grant revealed Babcock's unauthorized treaty to his cabinet without discussion. Grant casually told his Cabinet he knew Babcock had no authority to make the treaty but he could remedy this by having the treaty authorized by the United States Dominican Republic Consul. All of the Cabinet kept quiet until Secretary Cox spoke up and asked Grant, "But Mr. President, has it been settled, then, that we want to annex Santo Domingo?" Grant blushed and was embarrassed by Cox's direct questioning. Grant then turned to his left looking at Secretary Fish and then turned to his right looking at Secretary of Treasury George S. Boutwell, puffing hard on his cigar. The uncomfortable silence continued until President Grant ordered another item of business. The assembled Cabinet never again spoke on Santo Domingo. Grant personally lobbied Senators to pass the treaty, going so far as to visit
Charles Sumner Charles Sumner (January 6, 1811March 11, 1874) was an American lawyer and statesman who represented Massachusetts in the United States Senate from 1851 until his death in 1874. Before and during the American Civil War, he was a leading American ...
at his home. Fish out of loyalty to Grant authorized and submitted the treaty. The Senate, led by the opposition of Sumner, refused to pass the treaty.


Indian affairs

After the Piegan Indian massacre in January 1870, Secretary Cox in March 1870 demanded that Congress implement definitive and lasting legislation on Indian Policy. President Grant, who desired that Indians become "civilized," had created the Board of Indian Commissioners in 1869 under his Peace policy. Cox defended the integrity of the Commissioners appointed by President Grant. The massacre indirectly helped keep the Bureau of Indian Affairs under the Department of Interior, rather than be transferred to the Department of War. Cox believed that industrial progress such as railroads and telegraph lines were no excuse to break treaties with the Indians. Cox believed that Native Americans derived no benefits from frontier towns that took away pasture lands from the buffalo herds, an Indian food staple. Cox believed that keeping promises to the Indians, rather than breaking treaties, was essential for peace. Cox, however, viewed Indians had low intelligence, were conceited, and made poor diplomats. In 1871, after Cox had resigned from office, Congress and President Grant created a comprehensive law that ended the Indian treaty system; the law treated individual Native Americans as wards of the federal government, rather than dealing with the tribes as sovereign entities. In early 1870, Sioux Indians in Wyoming, under the leadership of Chief Red Cloud and Chief Spotted Tail, were upset as white settlers encroached on Indian land. To avoid war, Red Cloud asked to see President Grant, who along with Spotted Tail, were allowed to journey East to Washington. Cox looked forward to their visit, hoping to convince the Sioux chiefs of the federal government's commitment to Indian treaties, and also to impress them with the power and grandeur of the nation, so they would be fearful of making war. Arriving in Washington, the chiefs had conversations with Cox, Ely Parker, and President Grant. On June 1, the chiefs were given a tour of Washington, but failed to be awed into submission. On June 2, Cox was scolded by Spotted Tail for not keeping the Treaty of 1868. In response, Cox lectured Spotted Tail that complaining was not manly, and that the Grant administration's Indian policies had positive results. Spotted Tail jested to Cox, that Cox would have slit his throat if he had to live through the troubles Spotted Tail was forced to endure. On June 3, Red Cloud took a similar tack as Spotted Tail, emphasizing he would not give up the old ways. Red Cloud asked Cox for food and ammunition so his people could hunt and not starve, railed against broken treaties, and forcing Indians into starvation. Cox put the chiefs off and told them they would speak with President Grant. On June 7, Cox attempted to placate the Indian chiefs that President Grant, the "Great White Father", acted not out of fear, but had the desire to do the right thing. Cox told the Indians they would get all they asked for, except for guns, and Cox personally promised to see the treaties were kept to the letter. Meeting the Indians, President Grant was warm and welcome and emphasized the same sentiments as Cox. Grant gave the chiefs a formal State Dinner at the White House, that proved to emphasize a clash of two cultures. The chiefs were given fine foods and wine but were especially fond of strawberry ice cream. Spotted Tail was reported to have commented that his white hosts ate far better foods than the rations sent to the Indians. At their final meeting, Cox offered several more concessions, and allowed the Indians to give names of agents they would prefer to act as interlocutors with the government. Cox also promised to give the chiefs seventeen horses. Red Cloud apologized to Cox for his rudeness, while Cox promised to promote Indian interest. Before returning to Wyoming the Indians visited New York City, and the
philanthropist Philanthropy is a form of altruism that consists of "private initiatives for the public good, focusing on quality of life". Philanthropy contrasts with business initiatives, which are private initiatives for private good, focusing on material ...
eastern papers demanded a more generous Sioux policy. Cox sent the Indians the promised seventeen horses and arranged for a group of reformers to accompany the promised goods. The arrival of the aid package did much to calm the situation and war was averted. One historian noted that the Washington visit was a success, while Red Cloud adopted a policy of diplomacy rather than war.


McGarrahan claims and resignation

In August 1870, Secretary Cox came into conflict with President Grant over the fraudulent McGarrahan claims. Grant wanted the McGarrahan claims either settled by Congress or if Congress failed to do so then his administration. Although Grant believed there was fraud in the matter he wanted the McGarrahan claims settled. Cox, however, in a letter to the President, told Grant that he wanted nothing to do with the McGarrahan claims, believing that McGarrahan was entirely fraudulent in asking for a patent on land claims in California. Cox stated that one of McGarrahan's attorneys was instructed to bribe Cox $20,000 for him to approve that patent. McGarrahan had applied for a patent on California agriculture land to be bought up at a low price. However, the land was actually used for gold mining purposes. Cox appealed to Grant not to have Cox appear before a District Court in regards to the McGarrahan claims and to hold a Cabinet meeting over the matter. Cox believed that the District Court had no jurisdiction over that matter and that the Department of Interior had sole jurisdiction. When Grant gave no support to Cox over not appearing before the court, Cox saw this as an additional reason for not continuing in office—though civil service reform was the proximate cause of his resignation.


Liberal Republican revolt (1870–1872)

230px, Liberal Republican Party Convention May 1872 Dissatisfaction over the Grant administration, his appointments of family and friends, corruption at the New York Customs House, and his attempt to annex Santo Domingo, led many reformers to seek new leadership. Grant's prosecution of the
Ku Klux Klan The Ku Klux Klan (), commonly shortened to KKK or Klan, is an American Protestant-led Christian terrorism, Christian extremist, white supremacist, Right-wing terrorism, far-right hate group. It was founded in 1865 during Reconstruction era, ...
alienated a fraction of former Republican allies, who believed civil service reform should have priority over civil rights of blacks. In 1870, Senator
Carl Schurz Carl Christian Schurz (; March 2, 1829 – May 14, 1906) was a German-American revolutionary and an American statesman, journalist, and reformer. He migrated to the United States after the German revolutions of 1848–1849 and became a prominent ...
of Missouri, a German immigrant, bolted from the regular Republican Party. After Cox resigned office the same year, many reformers believed that Grant was incapable of reforming civil service. Grant, however, had yet not given up on civil service reform and he created the
Civil Service Commission A civil service commission (also known as a Public Service Commission) is a government agency or public body that is established by the constitution, or by the legislature, to regulate the employment and working conditions of civil servants, overse ...
, authorized and funded by Congress, whose rules would be effective January 1, 1872. Grant appointed reformer and ''Harper's Weekly'' editor George William Curtis to head the commission. Grant appointee
Columbus Delano Columbus Delano (June 4, 1809 – October 23, 1896) was an American lawyer, rancher, banker, statesman, and a member of the prominent Delano family. Forced to live on his own at an early age, Delano struggled to become a self-made man. Delano ...
, Grant's third cousin and replacement of Cox, however, exempted the Interior Department from the commission's rules, later saying the department was too large for compliance. In March 1871, a disgruntled Cox organized a breakaway nucleus of reforming Republicans in Cincinnati, when 100 Republicans signed a pact, separating themselves from the regular Republican Party, calling themselves Liberal Republicans. Schurz, now considered a Liberal Republican ringleader, advocated full amnesty for former Confederates. The new party demanded "civil service reform, sound money, low tariffs, and state's rights." Meeting on May 1, 1872, at their convention held in Cincinnati, the Liberal Republicans nominated ''New York Tribune'' editor
Horace Greeley Horace Greeley (February 3, 1811 – November 29, 1872) was an American newspaper editor and publisher who was the founder and newspaper editor, editor of the ''New-York Tribune''. Long active in politics, he served briefly as a congres ...
for President of the United States. Cox had been mentioned for the presidency, but he was not put on the ballot. Reformers had favored Charles Francis Adams for president and he was put on the ballot, but he could not obtain enough votes to capture the nomination. Cox was against Greeley's nomination and withdrew his support for the Liberal Republican revolt. Greeley, in effect, took the campaign from reformers, attacking Grant's Reconstruction policy, rather than making reform the primary goal. Grant, who was renominated by the regular Republican Party, easily won reelection over Greeley, having captured 56% of the popular vote. Cox was considered as a U.S. Senate candidate in the 1872 election, but the Ohio legislature selected a more pro-civil rights Republican. At this time U.S. Senators were chosen by state legislatures rather than by popular vote.


Later years


Railroad president and receiver (1873–78)

In October 1873, Cox was made President and Receiver of the Toledo and Wabash Railroad. Cox moved to Toledo, Ohio, to take charge of the property. He served from 1873 to 1878.


U.S. Representative (1877–79)

Republican Party candidate Cox was elected to the
United States House of Representatives The United States House of Representatives is a chamber of the Bicameralism, bicameral United States Congress; it is the lower house, with the U.S. Senate being the upper house. Together, the House and Senate have the authority under Artic ...
from Toledo in 1876. Cox served a single term in the Forty-Fifth Congress from 1877 to 1879. Cox defeated Democratic Party candidate Frank H. Hurd. Cox received 17,276 votes against Hurd who received 15,361 votes. Cox represented the Sixth District of Ohio that included Fulton, Henry, Lucas, Ottawa, Williams, and Wood counties. Cox declined to run for a second term.


Cincinnati Law School dean (1881–97)

180px, He then returned to Cincinnati, serving as Dean of the
Cincinnati Law School The University of Cincinnati College of Law is the law school of the University of Cincinnati in Cincinnati, Ohio. History The University of Cincinnati College of Law was founded in 1833 as the Cincinnati Law School. It is the fourth oldest conti ...
from 1881 to 1897. After retiring from his position as dean, he was urged by President
William McKinley William McKinley (January 29, 1843September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, serving from 1897 until Assassination of William McKinley, his assassination in 1901. A member of the Republican Party (United States), Repub ...
to accept the position of U.S. ambassador to
Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
, but declined, having strong anti-imperialist views


University of Cincinnati president (1885–89)

Cox was President of the
University of Cincinnati The University of Cincinnati (UC or Cincinnati, informally Cincy) is a public university, public research university in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. It was founded in 1819 and had an enrollment of over 53,000 students in 2024, making it the ...
from 1885 to 1889.


Military historian and author

During his later years, Cox was a prolific author. His works include ''Atlanta'' (published in 1882); ''The March to the Sea: Franklin and Nashville'' (1882); ''The Second Battle of Bull Run'' (1882); ''The Battle of Franklin, Tennessee'' (1897); and ''Military Reminiscences of the Civil War'' (1900). His books are still cited by scholars, and his memoirs contain incisive analyses of military practice and events.


Death and burial

Cox died on summer vacation at
Gloucester, Massachusetts Gloucester ( ) is a city in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States. It sits on Cape Ann and is a part of North Shore (Massachusetts), Massachusetts's North Shore. The population was 29,729 at the 2020 United States census, 2020 U.S. Census. ...
. He is buried in Spring Grove Cemetery, Cincinnati.


Historical reputation

With the exception of dissertations and a few biographical articles, there were no 20th-century book biographies of Cox's entire life. In 1901, historian William Cox Cochran authored a 35-page book titled ''General Jacob Dolson Cox: Early Life and Military Services'' published by Bibliotheca Sacra Company in Oberlin, Ohio. ''The Biographical Dictionary of America'' published in 1906 by the American Biographical Society, edited by Rossiter Johnson, had a biographical article on Cox, that included a sketch portrait of Cox. Volume 4 of ''Dictionary of American Biography'', edited by Dumas Malone, published in 1930 by Charles Scribner's Sons, has a biographical article on Cox, authored by Homer Carey Hockett (H.C.H.). In 2014, historian Eugene D. Schmiel authored ''Citizen-General: Jacob Dolson Cox and the Civil War Era'' book biography on Cox's entire life. According to historian Donald K. Pickens, Cox "was a fascinating figure, very much part of his time, yet his various interests and achievements set him apart from his contemporaries." Pickens said Cox was an effective Secretary of Interior, "following Grant's policy of eventual assimilation of American Indians." Cox's endorsement of civil service reform was in opposition to powerful Republican Senators. Historian
Ron Chernow Ronald Chernow (; born March 3, 1949) is an American writer, journalist, and biographer. He has written bestselling historical non-fiction biographies. Chernow won the 2011 Pulitzer Prize, 2011 Pulitzer Prize for Biography and the 2011 American ...
said Cox was a conservative on Grant's cabinet, preaching against black suffrage and favored racial segregation, but "he enjoyed a reputation of an efficient administrator and an energetic ally of civil service reform." Historian Eugene D. Schmiel said Cox, as Grant's Secretary of Interior, "implemented one of the most far-reaching attempts to reform Indian Policy and instituted the federal government's first extensive civil service reform." Schmiel said "knowledge of Cox the citizen-general is limited, and he remains a relative unknown except to specialists and buffs." Concerning Cox's published military works, historian H.C.H. said that Cox, in general, was "recognized as an elegant and forceful writer, of fine critical ability and impartial judgement, one of the foremost military historians of the country." Built in 1880, Cox's home in Cincinnati is listed on the
National Register of Historic Places The National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) is the Federal government of the United States, United States federal government's official United States National Register of Historic Places listings, list of sites, buildings, structures, Hist ...
. The Cox Administration Building (designed by
Cass Gilbert Cass Gilbert (November 24, 1859 – May 17, 1934) was an American architect. An early proponent of Early skyscrapers, skyscrapers, his works include the Woolworth Building, the United States Supreme Court building, the state capitols of Minneso ...
) at
Oberlin College Oberlin College is a Private university, private Liberal arts colleges in the United States, liberal arts college and conservatory of music in Oberlin, Ohio, United States. Founded in 1833, it is the oldest Mixed-sex education, coeducational lib ...
is named in his honor.


Microscopy studies (1873–1895)

Around 1873, Cox became interested the study of
microscopy Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view subjects too small to be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical mic ...
and took it up as a recreational hobby. Cox's first studies were on fresh water forms, including rotatoria and
diatom A diatom (Neo-Latin ''diatoma'') is any member of a large group comprising several Genus, genera of algae, specifically microalgae, found in the oceans, waterways and soils of the world. Living diatoms make up a significant portion of Earth's B ...
aceae. Cox displayed painstaking thoroughness and logical analysis in his microscopical studies, keeping notes of his work and observations. In 1874, Cox took up the study of photo-micrography, and in 1875 he began making a series of photo-micrographs of diatomaceae, that totaled several hundred in number. In 1881, Cox was elected fellow of the
Royal Microscopical Society The Royal Microscopical Society (RMS) is a learned society for the promotion of microscopy. It was founded in 1839 as the Microscopical Society of London making it the oldest organisation of its kind in the world. In 1866, the Society gained it ...
. Cox gave up microscopical study in 1895, believing it damaged his eyes, but his interest in microscopy remained lifelong.


See also

* List of American Civil War generals (Union) *
List of U.S. state governors born outside the United States In total, 72 Governor (United States), governors of U.S. states have been born outside the current territory of the United States. Joe Lombardo of Nevada, born in Japan, is the only List of current United States governors, current governor ...


References


Sources

Books by author * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Books by editor * * New York Times * PDF * * PDF Internet * Journals * * *


Further reading

* Schmiel, Eugene D. ''Citizen-General: Jacob Dolson Cox and the Civil War Era''. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2014. .


External links

* *
''The Department of Everything Else: Highlights of Interior History''
(1989)

* * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Cox, Jacob Dolson 1828 births 1900 deaths Politicians from Montreal Union army generals American militia generals Governors of Ohio Ohio state senators United States secretaries of the interior People of Ohio in the American Civil War Oberlin College alumni Burials at Spring Grove Cemetery University of Cincinnati College of Law faculty Politicians from Cincinnati Republican Party governors of Ohio Grant administration cabinet members Civil service reform in the United States Presidents of the University of Cincinnati Ohio Whigs Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Ohio American segregationists 19th-century members of the United States House of Representatives 19th-century members of the Ohio General Assembly Members of the American Philosophical Society