Ivan Kupala
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Kupala Night (also Kupala's Night or just Kupala; Polish: , : ,
Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...
: Ива́н Купа́ла: , Купала: , Ukrainian: Іван Купало: ) is one of the major folk holidays in some of the
Slavic countries The Slavs or Slavic people are groups of people who speak Slavic languages. Slavs are geographically distributed throughout the northern parts of Eurasia; they predominantly inhabit Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, and No ...
that coincides with the Christian feast of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist and the East Slavic feast of
Saint John's Eve Saint John's Eve, starting at sunset on 23 June, is the eve of the Nativity of St John the Baptist, feast day of Saint John the Baptist. This is one of the very few feast days marking a saint's birth, rather than their death. The Gospel of Luke ...
. In folk tradition, it was revered as the day of the summer solstice and was originally celebrated on the shortest night of the year, which is on 21-22 or 23-24 of June in the
Czech Republic The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, and historically known as Bohemia, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the south ...
,
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
,
Slovakia Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the west, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's m ...
,
Bulgaria Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
(where it is called Enyovden), and modern
Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
(since 2023). Following the
Julian calendar The Julian calendar is a solar calendar of 365 days in every year with an additional leap day every fourth year (without exception). The Julian calendar is still used as a religious calendar in parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church and in parts ...
, it is celebrated on the night between 6 and 7 July in
Belarus Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Belarus spans an a ...
,
Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
, and parts of
Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
. The name of the holiday is ultimately derived from the Proto-Slavic word '' kǫpati'', meaning "to bathe". A number of activities and rituals are associated with Kupala Night, such as gathering herbs and flowers and decorating people, animals, and houses with them; entering water, bathing, or dousing with water and sending garlands on water; lighting fires, dancing, singing, and jumping over fire; and hunting witches and scaring them away. It was also believed that on this day the sun plays and other wonders of nature happen. The celebrations are held near the water, on the hills, surrounding that; chiefly, young men and women participate in these folkloric traditions. The rituals and symbolism of the holiday may point to its pre-Christian origins.


Names

*
Old East Slavic Old East Slavic (traditionally also Old Russian) was a language (or a group of dialects) used by the East Slavs from the 7th or 8th century to the 13th or 14th century, until it diverged into the Russian language, Russian and Ruthenian language ...
: , **
Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...
: , , , , *** dialectal: ; : "bonfire in the field"; ** Ukrainian: , , , , , , ***
Polesia Polesia, also called Polissia, Polesie, or Polesye, is a natural (geographic) and historical region in Eastern Europe within the East European Plain, including the Belarus–Ukraine border region and part of eastern Poland. This region shou ...
: , ** Belarusian: , *** dialectal: Polish dialects have retained loans from East Slavic languages: *
Podlachia Podlachia, also known by its Polish name Podlasie (; ; ), is a historical region in north-eastern Poland. Its largest city is Białystok, whereas the historical capital is Drohiczyn. Similarly to several other historical regions of Poland, e.g ...
and
Lublin Lublin is List of cities and towns in Poland, the ninth-largest city in Poland and the second-largest city of historical Lesser Poland. It is the capital and the centre of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 336,339 (December 2021). Lublin i ...
: ''kupała'', ''kąpała'', ''kąpałeczka'' * Podlachia, Lublin,
Sieradz Sieradz (,) is a city on the Warta river in central Poland with 40,891 inhabitants (2021). It is the seat of the Sieradz County, situated in the Łódź Voivodeship. Sieradz is a capital of the historical Sieradz Land. Sieradz is one of the olde ...
,
Kalisz Kalisz () is a city in central Poland, and the second-largest city in the Greater Poland Voivodeship, with 97,905 residents (December 2021). It is the capital city of the Kalisz Region. Situated on the Prosna river in the southeastern part of Gr ...
: ''kupalonecka'', ''kopernacka'', ''kopernocka'', ''kupalnocka'' In
Old Czech The Czech language developed at the close of the 1st millennium from common West Slavic languages, West Slavic. Until the early 20th century, it was known as ''Bohemian''. Early West Slavic Among the innovations in common West Slavic languag ...
(15th century), there is attested ''kupadlo'' "a multicolored thread with which gifts were tied, given on the occasion of Saint John's Eve; a gift given to boys by girls on the occasion of Saint John's Eve". In Slovakia, the folk ''kupadla'' "Saint John's Eve".


History and etymology

According to many researchers, Kupala Night is a Christianized Proto-Slavic or East Slavic celebration of the summer solstice. According to Nikolay Gal'kovskiy, "Kupala Night combined two elements: pagan and Christian." The viewpoint on the pre-Christian origin of the holiday is criticized by historian Vladimir Petrukhin and ethnographer Aleksandr Strakhov. Whereas, according to Andrzej Kempinski, "The apparent ambivalence (male-female, fire-wood, light-dark) seems to testify to the ancient origins of the holiday alleviating the contradictions of a dual society." According to Holobuts’ky and Karadobri, one of the arguments for the antiquity of the holiday is the production of fire by friction. The name appears as early as the
Old East Slavic Old East Slavic (traditionally also Old Russian) was a language (or a group of dialects) used by the East Slavs from the 7th or 8th century to the 13th or 14th century, until it diverged into the Russian language, Russian and Ruthenian language ...
language stage. Izmail Sreznevsky, in his ''Materials for the Dictionary of the Old East Slavic Language'', gives the entries: "Saint John's Eve" (In ''
Hypatian Codex The ''Hypatian Codex'', also known as Hypatian Letopis or Ipatiev Letopis, is a compendium of three Rus' chronicle, Rus' chronicles: the ''Primary Chronicle'', ''Kievan Chronicle'' and ''Galician-Volhynian Chronicle''. It is the most important sou ...
'' under year 1262: ), "baptist" (no example), " St. John's Day" (). Epigraph No. 78 in The Cathedral of Holy Wisdom in
Veliky Novgorod Veliky Novgorod ( ; , ; ), also known simply as Novgorod (), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the oldest cities in Russia, being first mentioned in the 9th century. The city lies along the ...
, dated to the late 11th - early 12th century, contains an inscription . According to ethnographer Vera Sokolova, ''Kupala'' is a later name that appeared among Eastern Slavs when the holiday coincided with the day of John the Baptist. According to
Max Vasmer Max Julius Friedrich Vasmer (; ; 28 February 1886 – 30 November 1962) was a Russian and German linguist. He studied problems of etymology in Indo-European, Finno-Ugric and Turkic languages and worked on the history of Slavic, Baltic, ...
, the name ''(Ivan) Kupala''/''Kupalo'' is a variant of the name '' (John the) Baptist'' ( ) and it calques the ancient Greek equivalent . Greek "baptist" derives from the verb "to immerse; to wash; to bathe; to baptize, consecrate, immerse in baptismal font", which in Old East Slavic was originally rendered by the word "to bathe", later displaced by "to baptise". The
Proto-Slavic Proto-Slavic (abbreviated PSl., PS.; also called Common Slavic or Common Slavonic) is the unattested, reconstructed proto-language of all Slavic languages. It represents Slavic speech approximately from the 2nd millennium BC through the 6th ...
form of the verb is reconstructed as ''*kǫpati'' "to dip in water, to bathe". According to Mel’nychuk, the word ''Kupalo'' itself may come from Proto-Slavic ''*kǫpadlo'' ( OCz. ''kupadlo'', SCr. ''kùpalo'', LSrb., USrb. ''kupadło'' "bathing place"), which is composed of the discussed verb ''*kǫpati'' and the suffix ''*-dlo''. The name of the holiday is related to the fact that the first ceremonial bath was taken during Kupala Night, and the connection to John the Baptist is secondary.


Deity ''Kupala''

From the 17th century, sources suggest that the holiday is dedicated to the deity ''Kupala'', whom the Slavs supposedly worshipped. However, modern researchers deny the existence of such a deity.


Rituals and beliefs

On this day, June 24, it was customary to pray to John the Baptist for headaches and for children. Kupala Night is filled with rituals related to water, fire and herbs. Most Kupala rituals take place at night. Bathing before sunset was considered mandatory: in the north,
Russians Russians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. Their mother tongue is Russian language, Russian, the most spoken Slavic languages, Slavic language. The majority of Russians adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church ...
were more likely to bathe in banyas, and in the south in rivers and lakes. Closer to sunset, on high ground or near rivers, bonfires were lit. Sometimes, fires were lit in the traditional way – by
friction Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. Types of friction include dry, fluid, lubricated, skin, and internal -- an incomplete list. The study of t ...
wood against wood. In some places in
Belarus Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Belarus spans an a ...
and Volyn Polissia, this archaic way of lighting a fire for the holiday survived until early 20th century. According to Vera Sokolova, among the Eastern Slavs, the holiday has been preserved in its most "archaic" form by the
Belarusians Belarusians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Belarus. They natively speak Belarusian language, Belarusian, an East Slavic language. More than 9 million people proclaim Belarusian ethnicity worldwide. Nearly 7.99&n ...
. In the center of the Kupala bonfire, Belarusians would place a pole on top of which a wheel was attached. Sometimes a horse's skull, called , was placed on top of the wheel and thrown into the fire, where it would burn, after which the youth would play, sing and dance around the fire. In Belarus, old, unwanted items were collected from backyards throughout the village and taken to a place chosen for the celebration (a glade, a high riverbank), where they were then burned.
Ukrainians Ukrainians (, ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine. Their native tongue is Ukrainian language, Ukrainian, and the majority adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, forming the List of contemporary eth ...
also preserved the main archaic elements, but changed their symbolic meanings in the 19th century. Russians either forgot the main elements of the Kupala ceremony or transferred them to other holidays ( Trinity Day, Peter Day). The celebration of Kupala Night is mentioned in the '' Hustyn Chronicle'' (17th century):
This Kupala... is commemorated on the eve of the Nativity of John the Baptist... in the following manner: In the evening, ordinary children of both sexes gather and make wreaths of poisonous herbs or roots, and those covered with their clothes set fire, and then they put a green branch, and holding their hands they dance around the fire, singing their songs... Then they leap over the fire...
On Kupala Night, "bride and groom" were chosen and wedding ceremonies were conducted: they jumped over the fire holding hands, exchanged
wreath A wreath () is an assortment of flowers, leaves, fruits, twigs, or various materials that is constructed to form a ring shape. In English-speaking countries, wreaths are used typically as household ornaments, most commonly as an Advent and C ...
s (symbol of maidenhood), looked for the fern flower and bathed in the morning dew. On this day, "village roads were plowed so that 'matchmakers would come sooner', or a furrow was plowed to a boy's house so that he would get engaged faster." In some parts of Ukrainian and Belarusian tradition, it was only after Kupala that vesnianky were no longer sung. Eastern and Western Slavs were forbidden to eat
cherries A cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus ''Prunus'', and is a fleshy drupe (stone fruit). Commercial cherries are obtained from cultivars of several species, such as the sweet ''Prunus avium'' and the sour ''Prunus cerasus''. The name ...
before that day. Eastern Slavs believed that women should not eat berries before St. John's Day, or their young children would die. The custom of public condemnation and ridicule on Kupala Night (also George's Day in Spring and Trinity Day) is well known. Criticism and condemnation are usually directed at residents of one's own or a neighboring village who have violated social and moral norms over the past year. This social condemnation can be heard in Ukrainian and Belarusian songs, which contain themes of quarrels between girls and boys or residents of neighboring villages. Condemnation and ridicule are expressed in public and serve as a regulator of social relations. According to
Hutsuls The Hutsuls (Hutsul/; ; ) are an East Slavic ethnic group spanning parts of western Ukraine and northern Romania (i.e. parts of Bukovina and Maramureș). In Ukraine, they have often been officially and administratively designated a subgro ...
beliefs, after Kupala come the "", when thunders and lightnings are common. These are days when thunderous spirits walk around, sending lightning bolts to the earth. "And then between the dark sky and the tops of the mountains, fire trees grow, connecting heaven and earth. And so it will be until the Elijah's day, the old Thunderous feast" after which, they say, "thunder will stop pounding." Alexander Veselovsky, points out the similarity between the Slavic customs of Kupala Night and the Greek customs of Elijah's day, (Elijah the Thunderer).


Ritual dishes

The consecration of the first fruits ripening at this time may have coincided with the Kupala Night holiday. In some Russian villages, "
votive A votive offering or votive deposit is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally ...
porridge" was brewed: on St. Juliana's day (June 22), girls would gather to talk and, while singing, pound barley in a mortar. On the morning of St. Agrippina's day (June 23), barley was used to cook votive porridge. During the day, this porridge was given to the poor, and in the evening, sprinkled with butter, it was eaten by everyone. Among
Belarusians Belarusians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Belarus. They natively speak Belarusian language, Belarusian, an East Slavic language. More than 9 million people proclaim Belarusian ethnicity worldwide. Nearly 7.99&n ...
, delicacies brought from home were eaten both in separate groups and at
potluck A potluck is a communal gathering where each guest or group contributes a different, often homemade, dish of food to be shared. Other names for a "potluck" include: potluck dinner, pitch-in, shared lunch, spread, faith supper, carry-in dinner, c ...
and consisted of vareniki, cheese, tvarog, flour porridge (), sweet dough (
babka A babka, or an Ugat Shmarim (Hebrew: עוגת שמרים) is a sweet braided bread that originated in the Jewish communities of Poland and Ukraine. It is popular in Israel where it is known as a yeast cake. It is also popular in the Jewish dias ...
) with ground hemp seeds, onion, garlic, bread acid (
cold borscht Borscht () is a sour soup, made with meat Stock (food), stock, vegetables and seasonings, common in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. In English, the word ''borscht'' is most often associated with the soup's variant of Ukraine, Ukrainian orig ...
), and eggs in lard. In
Belarus Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Belarus spans an a ...
in the 19th century,
vodka Vodka ( ; is a clear distilled beverage, distilled alcoholic beverage. Its varieties originated in Poland and Russia. Vodka is composed mainly of water and ethanol but sometimes with traces of impurities and flavourings. Traditionally, it is ...
was drunk during the holiday, and wine was drunk in
Podlachia Podlachia, also known by its Polish name Podlasie (; ; ), is a historical region in north-eastern Poland. Its largest city is Białystok, whereas the historical capital is Drohiczyn. Similarly to several other historical regions of Poland, e.g ...
and the
Carpathians The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe and Southeast Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains ...
. Songs have preserved mention of the ancient drinks of the night:
Will accept you, ''Kupal’nochka'', as a guest, With treating you with green vine, With watering you with wheat beer, With feeding you with
quark A quark () is a type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nucleus, atomic nuclei ...
.


Water

The obligatory custom on this day was mass bathing. It was believed that on this day all evil spirits would leave the rivers, so it was safe to swim until Elijah's day. In addition, the water of Kupala Night was endowed with revitalizing and magical properties. In places where people were not allowed to bathe in rivers (because of russets), they bathed in "sacred springs". In the Russian North, on the day before of Kupala Night, on St. Agrippina's Day, baths were heated in which people were washed and steamed, while steaming the herbs collected on that day. Water drawn from springs on St. John's Day was said to have miraculous and magical powers. On this holiday, according to a common sign, water can "make friends" with fire. The symbol of this union was a bonfire lit along the banks of rivers. Wreaths were often used for divination on Kupala Night: if they floated on the water, it meant good luck and long life or marriage. A 16th-century Russian scribe attempted to explain the name () and the healing power of St. John's Day by referring to the Old Testament legend of Tobias. As he writes, it was on this day that Tobias bathed in the Tigris, where, on the advice of the archangel Raphael, he discovered a fish whose entrails cured his father of blindness.


Bonfire

The main feature of the Kupala Night is the cleansing
bonfire A bonfire is a large and controlled outdoor fire, used for waste disposal or as part of a religious feast, such as Saint John's Eve. Etymology The earliest attestations date to the late 15th century, with the Catholicon Anglicum spelling i ...
s. The youths would bring down a huge amount of brushwood from all over the village and set up a tall pyramid, with a pole in the middle, on which was placed a wheel, a barrel of tar, a horse or cow skull (
Polesia Polesia, also called Polissia, Polesie, or Polesye, is a natural (geographic) and historical region in Eastern Europe within the East European Plain, including the Belarus–Ukraine border region and part of eastern Poland. This region shou ...
), etc. According to Tatyana Agapkin and Lyudmila Vinogradova, the symbol of a tall pole with a wheel attached to it generally correlated with the universal image of the world tree. Bonfires were lit late in the evening and usually burned until morning. In various traditions, there is evidence of the requirement to light the Kupala bonfire with " need-fire", produced by friction; in some places, the fire was carried into the house and lit in the earth. All the women of the village had to approach the fire, since any who did not go were suspected of
witchcraft Witchcraft is the use of Magic (supernatural), magic by a person called a witch. Traditionally, "witchcraft" means the use of magic to inflict supernatural harm or misfortune on others, and this remains the most common and widespread meanin ...
. A khorovod was led around the bonfire, dancing, singing Kupala songs, and jumping over the bonfire: whoever jumps more successfully and higher will be happier. The girls leap over the fire to "purify themselves and protect themselves from disease, spoilage, spells," and so that " rusalky will not attack and come during the year." A girl who did not jump over the fire was called a witch (Eastern Slavs, Poland); she was doused with water and scourged with nettles because she had not been "cleansed" by the baptismal fire. In the
Kiev Governorate Kiev Governorate was an administrative-territorial unit ('' guberniya'') of the Russian Empire (1796–1917), Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–18; 1918–1921), Ukrainian State (1918), and the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–19 ...
, a girl who lost her virginity before marriage could not jump over the bonfire during Kupala Night, as doing so would desecrate it. In Ukraine and Belarus, girls and boys held hands and jumped over the fire in pairs. It was believed that if their hands stayed together while jumping, it would be a clear sign of their future marriage; the same if sparks flew behind them. In the Gomel Governorate, boys used to cradle girls in their arms over the Kupala bonfire to protect them from spells. Young people and children jumped over bonfires, organized noisy games: they played gorelki. In addition to bonfires, in some places on Kupala Night, wheels and barrels of tar were set on fire, which were then rolled down the mountains or carried on poles, which is clearly related to the symbolism of the solstice. In Belarus, the Galician Poles and
Carpathian The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe and Southeast Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains at ...
Slovaks The Slovaks ( (historical Sloveni ), singular: ''Slovák'' (historical: ''Sloven'' ), feminine: ''Slovenka'' , plural: ''Slovenky'') are a West Slavic ethnic group and nation native to Slovakia who share a common ancestry, culture, history ...
called baptismal bonfires ''Sobótki'' after the West Slavic ''sobota'' as a "day of rest".


Kupala songs

Many folklorists believe that the content of Kupala songs is poorly related to the rituals and mythological meaning of the holiday. The multi-genre song texts include many lyrical songs with love and family themes, humorous chants between boys and girls, khorovod dance songs and games, ballads, etc. As Kupala songs, these are identified by specific melodies and a specific calendar period. In other periods, it was not customary to sing such songs.


Wreath

The wreath was a mandatory attribute of the amusements. It was made before the holiday from wild herbs and flowers. The ritual use of the Kupala wreath is also related to the magical understanding of its shape, which brings it closer to other round and perforated objects (ring, hoop, loaf, etc.). The customs of milking or sipping milk through the wreath, reaching and pulling something through the wreath, looking, pouring, drinking, washing through it are based on these attributes of the wreath. It was believed that each plant gave the wreath special properties, and the way it was made — twisting and weaving — also added symbolism. Wreaths were often made of periwinkle,
basil Basil (, ; , ; ''Ocimum basilicum'' (, )), also called great basil, is a culinary herb of the family Lamiaceae (mints). It is a hardiness (plants), tender plant, and is used in cuisines worldwide. In Western cuisine, the generic term "basil" r ...
,
geranium ''Geranium'' is a genus of 422 species of annual, biennial, and perennial plants that are commonly known as geraniums or cranesbills. They are found throughout the temperate regions of the world and the mountains of the tropics, with the gre ...
,
fern The ferns (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta) are a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissue ...
s,
rose A rose is either a woody perennial plant, perennial flowering plant of the genus ''Rosa'' (), in the family Rosaceae (), or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred Rose species, species and Garden roses, tens of thousands of cultivar ...
s,
blackberries BlackBerry is a discontinued brand of handheld devices and related mobile services, originally developed and maintained by the Canadian company Research In Motion (RIM, later known as BlackBerry Limited) until 2016. The first BlackBerry device ...
,
oak An oak is a hardwood tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' of the beech family. They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an acorn, borne within a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisp ...
and
birch A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus ''Betula'' (), in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech- oak family Fagaceae. The genus ''Betula'' contains 3 ...
branches, etc. During the festival, the wreath was usually destroyed: thrown into water, burned in a bonfire, thrown on a tree or the roof of a house, carried to a cemetery, etc. Sometimes the wreath was preserved and used for healing, protecting fields from hailstorms and vegetable gardens from "worms". In Polesia, at the dawn of St. John's Day, peasants would choose the prettiest girl from among themselves, strip her naked and wrap her from head to toe in wreaths of flowers, then go to the forest, where the "''dzevko-kupalo''" (''girl-kupalo'' – as the chosen girl was called) would distribute the previously prepared wreaths to her girlfriends. She would blindfold herself, and the girls would walk around her in a merry dance. The garland that someone received was used to foretell future fate: a fresh garland meant a rich and happy marriage, a dry garland meant poverty and an unhappy marriage: "she will not have happiness, she will live in misery."


Kupala tree

Depending on the region, a young
birch A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus ''Betula'' (), in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech- oak family Fagaceae. The genus ''Betula'' contains 3 ...
,
willow Willows, also called sallows and osiers, of the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 350 species (plus numerous hybrids) of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions. Most species are known ...
,
maple ''Acer'' is a genus of trees and shrubs commonly known as maples. The genus is placed in the soapberry family Sapindaceae.Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 9, June 2008 nd more or less continuously updated si ...
,
spruce A spruce is a tree of the genus ''Picea'' ( ), a genus of about 40 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal ecosystem, boreal (taiga) regions of the Northern hemisphere. ''Picea'' ...
, or the cut top of an apple tree was chosen for the Kupala. The girls would decorate it with wreaths, field flowers, fruits, ribbons and sometimes candles; then take it outside the village, stick it in the ground in a clearing and dance, walk and sing around it. Later, the boys would join in the fun, pretending to steal the Kupala tree or ornaments from it, knocking it over or setting it on fire, while the girls protected it. At the end, everyone together was supposed to drown the Kupala tree in the river or burn it in a bonfire. Before the ritual, the tree could not be cut down, but simply located in a convenient place for the khorovod and dressed. In the Zhytomyr region, in one village, a dry
pine tree A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. ''World Flora Online'' accepts 134 species-rank taxa (119 species and 15 nothospecies) of pines as c ...
, growing outside the village near the river, was chosen for this; it was called . The celebrants threw the burnt tree trunk into the water, and then ran away so that "the witch (didn't) catch up with them."


Medicinal and magical herbs

A characteristic sign of Kupala Night are the many customs and legends associated with the plant world. Green was used as a universal amulet: it was believed to protect from diseases and epidemics,
evil eye The evil eye is a supernatural belief in a curse brought about by a malevolent glaring, glare, usually inspired by envy. Amulets to Apotropaic, protect against it have been found dating to around 5,000 years ago. It is found in many cultures i ...
and spoilage; from sorcerers and witches, unclean powers, "walking" dead people; from natural lightning, hurricane, fire; from snakes and predatory animals, insect pests, worms. At the same time, the contact with fresh greens was conceived as a magical means providing fertility and successful breeding of cattle, poultry, yield of cereals and vegetable crops. It was believed that on this day it was best to collect medicinal herbs, as the plants receive great power from the sun and the earth. Some herbs were harvested at night, others in the afternoon before lunch, and others in the morning dew. While collecting medicinal herbs, a special prayer (''
zagovory (singular ) is a form of verbal folk magic in East Slavs, Eastern Slavic Slavic folklore, folklore and Slavic mythology, mythology. Users of use incantations to enchant objects or people. Etymology The present-day Russian language, Russian ...
'') was recited. According to Belarusian beliefs, Kupala herbs are most healing if they are collected by the "old and young," i.e. old people and children – as the most pure (no sex life, no menstruation, etc.). The
fern The ferns (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta) are a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissue ...
and the so-called ''Ivan-da-marya'' flower (e.g., '' Melampyrum nemorosum''; literally: ''John and Mary'') were associated with special Kupala legends. The names of these plants appear in Kupala songs. The Slavs believed that only once a year, on St. John's Day, a fern blooms. This mythical flower, which does not exist in nature, is supposed to give those who pick it and keep it with them miraculous powers. According to beliefs, the bearer of the flower becomes clairvoyant, can understand the language of animals, see all treasures, no matter how deep they are in the ground, and enter treasuries unhindered by holding the flower to locks and bolts (they must crumble before it), wield unclean spirits, wield earth and water, become invisible and take any form. One of the main symbols of St. John's Day was the ''Ivan-da-marya'' flower, which symbolized the magical combination of fire and water. Kupala songs link the origin of this flower to twins – a brother and sister – who got into a forbidden love affair and because of this turned into a flower. The story of incestuous twins finds numerous parallels in Indo-European mythologies. Some plant names are related to the name Kupala, e.g.
Czech Czech may refer to: * Anything from or related to the Czech Republic, a country in Europe ** Czech language ** Czechs, the people of the area ** Czech culture ** Czech cuisine * One of three mythical brothers, Lech, Czech, and Rus *Czech (surnam ...
''kupadlo'' "'' Bromus''", "'' Cuscuta trifolii''", ''kupalnice'' "''
Ranunculus ''Ranunculus'' is a large genus of about 1750 species of flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae. Members of the genus are known as buttercups, spearworts and water crowfoots. The genus is distributed worldwide, primarily in temperate an ...
''", Polish ''kupalnik'' "''
Arnica ''Arnica'' is a genus of perennial plant, perennial, herbaceous plants in the sunflower family (Asteraceae). The genus name ''Arnica'' may be derived from the Greek language, Greek ''wikt:arni, arni'', "lamb", in reference to the plants' soft, h ...
''", Ukrainian "''
Taraxacum officinale ''Taraxacum officinale'', the dandelion or common dandelion, is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the daisy family, Asteraceae. The common dandelion is well known for its yellow flower heads that turn into round balls of many silver-tuf ...
''", "'' Tussilago''", Russian "''
Ranunculus acris ''Ranunculus acris'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae, and is one of the more common buttercups across Europe and temperate Eurasia. Common names include meadow buttercup, tall buttercup, common buttercup and giant but ...
''".


Protection from evil spirits

It was believed that on the Kupala Night all evil spirits awaken to life and harm people; that one should beware of "the mischief of demons –
domovoy In the Slavic religious tradition, Domovoy (, literally " he oneof the household"; also spelled ''Domovoi'', ''Domovoj'', and known as , (''Domovik''), (''Domovyk'') and (''Damavik'')) is the household spirit of a given kin. According to th ...
,
vodyanoy In Slavic mythology, ''vodyanoy'' ( rus, водяной, p=vədʲɪˈnoj; lit. ' efrom the water' or 'watery') is a water spirit. In Czech and Slovak fairy tales, he is called ''vodník'' (or in Germanized form: ), and often referred to as '' ...
, leshy, rusalky". In order to prevent witches from "taking away" milk from cows, Russians pounded consecrated
willow Willows, also called sallows and osiers, of the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 350 species (plus numerous hybrids) of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions. Most species are known ...
in pastures, and in Ukraine the owner pounded
aspen Aspen is a common name for certain tree species in the Populus sect. Populus, of the ''Populus'' (poplar) genus. Species These species are called aspens: * ''Populus adenopoda'' – Chinese aspen (China, south of ''P. tremula'') * ''Populus da ...
stakes in the yard. In Polesia, nettles, torn men's pants or a mirror was hung in the stable gate for the same purpose. In Belarus, aspen twigs and stakes were used to defend not only cattle, but also crops, "so that witches would not take the spores." To ward off evil spirits, it was customary to hammer sharp and prickly objects into tables, windows, doors, etc. In the Eastern Slavs, when a witch entered the house, a knife was driven into the table from below to prevent her from leaving. Southern Slavs believed that sticking a knife or hawthorn branch into the door would protect them from vampires or nightmares. On Kupala night, Eastern Slavs would drive scythes, pitchforks, knives and branches of certain trees into the windows and doors of houses and barns, protecting their space from evil spirits. It was believed that in order to protect oneself from witch attacks, one should put nettles on the threshold and window sills. Ukrainian girls collected wormwood because they believed it was feared by witches and russets. In
Podolia Podolia or Podillia is a historic region in Eastern Europe located in the west-central and southwestern parts of Ukraine and northeastern Moldova (i.e. northern Transnistria). Podolia is bordered by the Dniester River and Boh River. It features ...
, on St. John's Day,
hemp Hemp, or industrial hemp, is a plant in the botanical class of ''Cannabis sativa'' cultivars grown specifically for industrial and consumable use. It can be used to make a wide range of products. Along with bamboo, hemp is among the fastest ...
flowers ("porridge") were collected and scattered in front of the entrances to houses and barns to bar the way for witches. In order to prevent the witches from stealing them and driving them to Bald Mountain (no horse will return from there alive), the horses must be locked up. Belarusians believed that during Kupala Night, domoviks would ride horses and torture them. In Ukraine and Belarus, magical powers were attributed to firebrands from the Kupala bonfire. In western Polesia, young people would pull the sails from the fire, run with them as if they were torches, wave them over their heads, and then throw them into the fields "to protect the crops from evil powers." In Polesia, a woman who did not come to the bonfire was called a witch by the youth, cursed and teased. In order to identify and neutralize the witch, the road along which cattle are usually herded was blocked with thread, plowed with a plow or harrow, sprinkled with seeds or ants and poured with ant stock, believing that the witch's cow would not be able to overcome the obstacle. According to Slavic beliefs, the root of '' Lythrum salicaria'' dug up on St. John's Day was able to ward off sorcerers and witches; it could be used to drive demons out of the possessed and possessors.


Youth games

The games usually had a love-marriage theme: , tag, , ''celovki''; ball games ('' myachevukha'', '' v baryshi'' and others).


Ritual pranks

On the night of Kupala, as well as on one of the nights during the winter Christmas holidays, among Eastern Slavs, youngsters often engaged in ritual mischief and pranks: they stole firewood, carts, gates and hoisted them onto roofs, propped up house doors, covered windows, etc. Pranks on Kupala night are a South Russian and Polesian tradition.


Sun

It is a well-known belief that on St. John's Eve, the sun at sunrise shimmers with different colors or reflects, flashes, stops, etc. The most common way of referring to this phenomenon is as follows: the sun plays or jumps; in some traditions it also bathes, jumps, dances, walks, trembles, is merry, spins, bows, changes, blooms, beautifies (Russia); the sun Crowing (Polesia). In some parts of Bulgaria, it is believed that at dawn on St. John's Day, three suns appear in the sky, of which only the central one is "ours" and the others are its brothers – shining at other times and over other lands. The Serbs called John the Baptist because they believed that on this day the sun stops three times in the sky or plays. They explained the behavior of the sun on John's day by referring to Gospel verses relating to the birth of John the Baptist: "When Elizabeth heard Mary's greeting, the child in her womb moved, and the
Holy Spirit The Holy Spirit, otherwise known as the Holy Ghost, is a concept within the Abrahamic religions. In Judaism, the Holy Spirit is understood as the divine quality or force of God manifesting in the world, particularly in acts of prophecy, creati ...
filled Elizabeth."


Church on folk rituals

In medieval Russia, the rituals and games of the day were considered demonic and were banned by church authorities. Thus, the message of the
hegumen Hegumen, hegumenos, or igumen (, trans. ), is the title for the head of a monastery in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, or an archpriest in the Coptic Orthodox Church, similar to the title of abbot. The head of a convent of ...
of the Yelizarov Convent (1505) to the
Pskov Pskov ( rus, Псков, a=Ru-Псков.oga, p=psˈkof; see also Names of Pskov in different languages, names in other languages) is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, city in northwestern Russia and the administrative center of Pskov O ...
governor and authorities condemned the "pagan" games of Pskov residents on the night of the Nativity of John the Baptist:
For when the feast day of the Nativity of Forerunner itself arrives, then on this holy night nearly the entire city runs riot and in the villages they are possessed by drums and flutes and by the strings of the guitars and by every type of unsuitable satanic music, with the clapping of hands and dances, and with the women and the maidens and with the movements of the heads and with the terrible cry from their mouths: all of those songs are devilish and obscene, and curving their backs and leaping and jumping up and down with their legs; and right there do men and youths suffer great temptation, right there do they leer lasciviously in the face of the insolence of the women and the maidens, and there even occurs depravation for married women and perversion for the maidens.
– Epistle of Pamphilus of Yelizarov Monastery
'' Stoglav'' (a collection of decisions of the Stoglav Synod of 1551) also condemns the revelry during the Kupala Night, which originated in "
Hellenistic In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...
" paganism
And furthermore many of the children of Orthodox Christians, out of simple ignorance, engage in Hellenic devilish practices, a variety of games and clapping of hands in the cities and in the villages against the festivities of the Nativity of the Great John Prodome; and on the night of that same feast day and for the whole day until night-time, men and women and children in the houses and spread throughout the streets make a ruckus in the water with all types of games and much revelry and with satanic singing and dancing and gusli and in many other unseemly manners and ways, and even in a state of drunkenness.
Contemporary representatives of the
Russian Orthodox Church The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC; ;), also officially known as the Moscow Patriarchate (), is an autocephaly, autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodox Christian church. It has 194 dioceses inside Russia. The Primate (bishop), p ...
continue to oppose some of the customs associated with this holiday. At the same time, responding to a question about the "intermingling" of Christian and pagan holidays,
hieromonk A hieromonk,; Church Slavonic, Slavonic: ''Иеромонахъ''; ; ; ; ; Albanian language, Albanian: ''Hieromurg'' also called a priestmonk, is a person who is both monk and Priest#Roman Catholic and Orthodox, priest in the Eastern Christianity ...
expressed an opinion:
The perennial persistence among the people of some of the customs of the Kupala Night does not indicate a double faith, but rather an incompleteness of faith. After all, how many people who have never participated in these pagan entertainments are prone to superstition and mythological ideas. The ground for this is our fallen nature, corrupted by sin.
In 2013, at the request of the ROC, the celebrations of Kupala Night and Neptune's Day were banned in the Rossoshansky District of the
Voronezh Oblast Voronezh Oblast is a federal subjects of Russia, federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative center is the types of inhabited localities in Russia, city of Voronezh. Its population was 2,308,792 as of the Russian Census (2021), 20 ...
.


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ; ''Slavic antiques'' * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ; Dictionaries * * * * * * * * * * {{Authority control Observances in Russia Russian folklore Saint John's Day Observances in Poland Folk calendar of the East Slavs Belarusian traditions Russian traditions Ukrainian traditions Observances in Ukraine Slavic holidays Days celebrating love Summer in Ukraine Summer in Poland Summer solstice