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Islamic manuscripts had a variety of functions ranging from
Qur'anic The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
recitation to scientific notation. These manuscripts were produced in many different ways depending on their use and period.
Parchment Parchment is a writing material made from specially prepared Tanning (leather), untanned skins of animals—primarily sheep, calves and goats. It has been used as a writing medium in West Asia and Europe for more than two millennia. By AD 400 ...
(
vellum Vellum is prepared animal skin or membrane, typically used as writing material. It is often distinguished from parchment, either by being made from calfskin (rather than the skin of other animals), or simply by being of a higher quality. Vellu ...
) was a common way to produce
manuscripts A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or automated way. More recently, the term has c ...
. Manuscript creators eventually transitioned to using paper in later centuries with the diffusion of paper-making in the Islamic empire. When Muslims encountered paper in Central Asia, its use and production spread to Iran, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa during the 8th century. The Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation has estimated that 3 million Islamic manuscripts have survived. Other academics talk of 7 million surviving manuscripts out of 90 million manuscripts written between the 7th and 14th centuries. The estimates vary due to several challenges, such as limited access to manuscripts located in conflict zones or held in private libraries.


Scripts

The development of scripts in the Islamic empir, demonstrates the transition from an oral culture to convey information to a written form. Traditionally speaking in the Islamic empire, Arabic calligraphy was the common form of recording texts. Calligraphy is the practice or art of decorative handwriting. The demand for calligraphy in the early stages of the Islamic empire (circa 7–8th century CE) can be attributed to a need to produce Qur'an manuscripts. During the
Umayyad The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a membe ...
period,
Kufic The Kufic script () is a style of Arabic script, that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a reference and an archetype for a number of other Arabic scripts ...
scripts were typically seen in Qur'an manuscripts. However,
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
was only one of the scripts used for recording religious manuscripts. In the Indian subcontinent, for example, Nizari Ismailis utilized the Khwajah Sindhi ( Khojki) script, which was closely associated with their identity. The specific form of this script was exclusively used by Nizari Ismailis, who were known as Khwajahs or Khojas. Recording religious literature in this script had the added benefit of preserving it from potentially hostile eyes.


Genres

Islamic manuscripts include a variety of topics, such as religion, medicine, astrology, and literature.


Religious Manuscripts

A common religious manuscript would be a copy of the
Qur'an The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...
, which is the sacred book of Islam. The Qur'an is believed by Muslims to be a divine revelation (the word of god) to
Muhammad Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
, revealed to him by Archangel Gabriel. Qur'anic manuscripts can vary in form and function. Certain manuscripts were larger in size for ceremonial purposes, others being smaller and more transportable. An example of a Qur'an manuscript is the Blue Qur'an. The Blue Qur'an is ceremonial in nature, which a Hafiz would utilize. It has gold
Kufic The Kufic script () is a style of Arabic script, that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a reference and an archetype for a number of other Arabic scripts ...
script, on parchment dyed blue with indigo. Many Qur'an manuscripts are divided into 30 equal sections ( juz) to be able to be read over the course of 30 days. The Chinese practice of writing on paper, presented to the Islamic world around the 8th century CE, enabled the writing of the Qur'an on paper. The decrease in production costs of Qur'an manuscripts due to the transition from parchment to paper enabled Qur'ans to be utilized more frequently for personal use or worship, rather than just ceremonial settings. Within the Nizari Ismaili community, manuscripts were recorded in the Khwajah Sindhi (Khojki) script, as mentioned above. A common type of literature recorded in this script is known as Ginans. These are commonly in the form of devotional hymns recited by members of the community. The script also preserves other types of religious literature, such as songs of devotions in praise of Prophet Muhammed and legends about the Prophets.


Evolution of Qur'anic Calligraphy and Technique

Manuscripts of the Qu'ran have been created and copied since the
Umayyad The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a membe ...
period (661–750CE). Over the course of this period, copies of Qur'anic manuscripts were produced in
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
and were named the "Damascus papers." Some parts of the Damascus Papers contained ''hijazi'' script which was unique to each calligrapher's writing style. ''Hijazi'' script disregarded the use of short vowels and was created to serve as a memory aid to reciters. Manuscripts with Hijazi script also utilized the rules of ''scripto continua'' and displayed no decoration or ornamentation. Under the reign of Umayyad caliph, Abd-al-Malik (685–705), Qur'anic script was standardized and inserted onto other surfaces such as marble as a way to promote Arabic in the region. One example of marble inscription is seen inside the
Dome of the Rock The Dome of the Rock () is an Islamic shrine at the center of the Al-Aqsa mosque compound on the Temple Mount in the Old City (Jerusalem), Old City of Jerusalem. It is the world's oldest surviving work of Islamic architecture, the List_of_the_ol ...
in Jerusalem. When paper-making set its course towards central Asia, paper became the preferred material setting for Qur'anic manuscripts. The use of paper amplified the development of new writing styles and motivated calligraphers to heighten the manuscripts' aesthetic appeal. ''
Kufic The Kufic script () is a style of Arabic script, that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a reference and an archetype for a number of other Arabic scripts ...
'' script had been used as the main style of scripture until about 1200 CE. After the turn of the 13th century, calligraphers began to prefer writing styles such as ''naskh'' to transcribe the Qu'ran. Before the fourteenth century, calligraphers were responsible for both the text and illumination of Qur'anic manuscripts until the artwork became more complex and required its own specialist.


Structure and Order of Qur'anic Manuscripts

In the making of Qur'anic manuscripts, early calligraphers used a strict set of geometric rules. For example, each page had a space reserved for writing which was divided into perfectly equal and parallel lines depending on thickness of the pen. A set of key ratios was also used to determine the box's width and height. After the structure of the text box was determined, calligraphers followed an interline system to write out the script. Early Qur'anic manuscripts did not have a direct textual structure. To amplify oration and make recitation easier, illuminators created a decorative vocabulary. At first, the illuminators differentiated each
surah A ''surah'' (; ; ) is an Arabic word meaning 'chapter' in the Quran. There are 114 ''suwar'' in the Quran, each divided into ayah, verses (). The ''suwar'' are of unequal length; the shortest ''surah'' (al-Kawthar) has only three verses, while ...
by pairing it with a unique geometric band. Subsequently, a more complex system was put in place in order to organize the Qur'an's contents and help individuals read and recite the text. This system included motifs (''aya''), chapters (''surah''), and primary divisions (''juz'') that are seen between each thirty sections and organize the singular text into different parts. The Qur'an now contains 114 ''surahs'' with a range of three to 268 verses.


Evolution of Illumination

During the recitation of Qur'anic manuscripts, the frontispiece was presented to the audience in order to display the beautiful illumination. These illuminations usually use geometry, and nature as inspiration and don't display any sort of iconography due to the values of Islam.Hussain, Tajammul. “Roads to Paradise: The Art of the Illumination of the Qur’an.” (2016). https://www.themathesontrust.org/papers/art/Tajammul-Roads.pdf Early illuminators had to create the perfect sense of symbolism and ornamentation to represent each section of text while keeping the text as the main focal point. In the eighth century, when the Qur'an was first produced as a
codex The codex (: codices ) was the historical ancestor format of the modern book. Technically, the vast majority of modern books use the codex format of a stack of pages bound at one edge, along the side of the text. But the term ''codex'' is now r ...
, ornamentation was already included in the design. The entire frontispiece of the Qur'an usually contained illumination as well as the borders of the first few folios, the last folios, and the titles of each chapter in the text. The use of illuminated medallions also became popular after the tenth century to indicate each fifth and tenth verse within the text. Around the eleventh century, only the first and last folios out of the entire text were illuminated. The illuminations were typically applied in gold and incorporated geometric and vegetal designs. During the reign of the
Mamluk Mamluk or Mamaluk (; (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural); translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave") were non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) enslaved mercenaries, slave-so ...
and
Ilkhanid The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of the Mongol Empire. It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids (), and known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known ...
dynasties (1250–1517), paper became more accessible and allowed for the production of larger scale Qur'ans. This influenced illuminators to add more complex designs and new motifs. Qur'anic manuscripts produced by Mamluks were noted for gilded foliate scrollwork as well as star-shaped and hexagonal motifs. The Ilkhanid dynasty was responsible for adapting their geometric vocabulary to different sized manuscripts and sense of lavishness in design. The Timurid dynasty (1370–1507) introduced a style of illumination that included fine gilded leaves and stems, red florets, and diamond shaped medallions on a dark-blue background. An example of this style of illumination is seen in this single-volume Qur'an that was made between 1480 and 1500. Manuscripts from the Safavid dynasty (1500–1700) is known for their fine golden and floral scroll illuminations with lapis backgrounds. Additionally, the Safavid dynasty is also known for the
Shiraz Shiraz (; ) is the List of largest cities of Iran, fifth-most-populous city of Iran and the capital of Fars province, which has been historically known as Pars (Sasanian province), Pars () and Persis. As of the 2016 national census, the popu ...
manuscripts which were large in size and elaborate in design. Illuminators from the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
(1400–1700) were influenced by Timurid illumination and followed their gold and blue floral style. Ottoman illuminators also incorporated rose, hyacinth, and tulip motifs into their illuminations. The Ottomans also built a manufacturing studio in Istanbul where illuminated Qur'ans were produced into the beginning of the twentieth century.


Scientific Manuscripts

Many early illustrated Arabic manuscripts are affiliated with scientific subjects. Scientific manuscripts discuss a variety of topics including but not limited to astronomy, astrology, anatomy, botany, and zoology. The development of early illustrated scientific manuscripts began under the Islamic
Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 C ...
dynasty in Baghdad in approximately the mid-8th century. The development of new scientific work starting to translation of old Greek scientific and learned works, and the make pure original scholarship in science, medicine, and philosophy in Arabic.Hoffman, Eva R. 2000. The Beginnings of the Illustrated Arabic Book: An Intersection between Art and Scholarship. In Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World, XVII, pg. 44. An example of an Arabic scientific manuscript is the '' Book of the Fixed Stars'' by Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi. This manuscript is a catalog of stars and their constellations, commissioned by the patron the Buyid prince Adud al-Dawla. The ''Book of the Fixed Stars'' based most of its content on
Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; , ; ; – 160s/170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine science, Byzant ...
's '' Mathēmatikē Syntaxis'' (Almagest), which was translated from Greek to Arabic during the 9th century. Al-Sufi's included his own observations of Ptolemy's material into this manuscript as well.


The Scientific Manuscripts of Timbuktu

One of the most significant examples of scientific Islamic manuscripts comes from the
Timbuktu Manuscripts Timbuktu Manuscripts, or Tombouctou Manuscripts, is a blanket term for the large number of historically significant manuscripts that have been preserved for centuries in private households in Timbuktu, a city in northern Mali. The collections i ...
. The creation of these manuscripts range from the 13th to the 20th century, with most of them being made during the
Mali Empire The Mali Empire (Manding languages, Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or ''Manden ...
(1230–1672). Within these manuscripts, there is discussion of several scientific concepts including
mathematics Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, Mathematical theory, theories and theorems that are developed and Mathematical proof, proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. There are many ar ...
,
astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest includ ...
,
astrology Astrology is a range of Divination, divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that propose that information about human affairs and terrestrial events may be discerned by studying the apparent positions ...
, and
medicine Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...
. Although these are scientific manuscripts, many of them include poetic structure. One example of these scientific manuscripts is Manuscript no. 2262, a work that discusses ideas about astronomy. This manuscript discusses the intersection between solar and lunar calendars. More specifically, this manuscript instructs the reader on how to determine January first of the Islamic Lunar Year 1023. Additionally, the manuscript discusses the process of determining whether or not it is leap year.  Another example is Manuscript no. 1045, entitled by scholars as "The Treatment of Illnesses, Internal and External." In this manuscript, the author discusses medical ideas such as: the use of plants for treating illnesses, the use of minerals and their medicinal powers, and the use of animal organs in certain healing processes. Timbuktu Manuscripts are unique due to the sheer volume of manuscripts discovered and their wide range of concepts including concepts of philosophy that contradicted common ideas about Islamic framework.


Collections


Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library

The Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library has a collection of 25,000 Islamic Manuscripts including Padshahnama, Tareek ke khandan e timuriya, Divān of Hafez, Safinatul Auliya and
Sahih al-Bukhari () is the first hadith collection of the Six Books of Sunni Islam. Compiled by Islamic scholar al-Bukhari () in the format, the work is valued by Sunni Muslims, alongside , as the most authentic after the Qur'an. Al-Bukhari organized the bo ...
, hand-transcribed by Shaykh Muhammad ibn Yazdan Bakhsh Bengali in Ekdala, eastern Bengal. The manuscript was a gift to the Sultan of Bengal Alauddin Husain Shah. It is also the only library in the world to have the original manuscripts from the Caliphate of Cordoba. It presently has the best collection of Islamic manuscripts.


Mamma Haidara Commemorative Library

The Mamma Haidara Commemorative Library is a collection of thousands of Islamic manuscripts from
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; ; Koyra Chiini: ; ) is an ancient city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. It is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrative regions of Mali, having a population of 32,460 in the 2018 census. ...
. They were moved to
Bamako Bamako is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Mali, with a 2022 population of 4,227,569. It is located on the Niger River, near the rapids that divide the upper and middle Niger valleys in the southwestern part of the country. Bamak ...
for safekeeping due to the Mali War.


The Zaydani Collection

The Zaydani Library or Zaydani Collection () is a collection of manuscripts belonging to Sultan Zidan Abu Maali of the
Saadi dynasty The Saadi Sultanate (), also known as the Sharifian Sultanate (), was a state which ruled present-day Morocco and parts of Northwest Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was led by the Saadi dynasty, an Arab Sharifism, Sharifian dynasty. ...
that is located at
El Escorial El Escorial, or the Royal Site of San Lorenzo de El Escorial (), or (), is a historical residence of the king of Spain located in the town of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, up the valley ( road distance) from the town of El Escorial, Madrid, El ...
in Spain.


Cambridge University Library

In the 1630s Cambridge University founded a Professorship in Arabic. The Cambridge University Library collection started with the donation of the Quran by William Bedwell. Since then it has grown to over 5,000 works. It includes collections of Thomas Erpenius, J.L.Burckhardt, E.H.Palmer and E.G. Browne.


The British Library

The British Library The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom. Based in London, it is one of the largest libraries in the world, with an estimated collection of between 170 and 200 million items from multiple countries. As a legal deposit li ...
hold a collection of almost 15,000 works in 14,000 volumes. In 1982, the collections of the
India Office The India Office was a British government department in London established in 1858 to oversee the administration of the Provinces of India, through the British viceroy and other officials. The administered territories comprised most of the mo ...
Library were transferred to the British library.


University of Michigan

One of the largest collections in North America is at the
University of Michigan The University of Michigan (U-M, U of M, or Michigan) is a public university, public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest institution of higher education in the state. The University of Mi ...
which holds 1,800 texts contained in over 1,100 volumes.


Leipzig University Library

The Oriental Manuscripts of the Leipzig University Library are around 3,200 oriental manuscripts in the Leipzig University Library in
Leipzig Leipzig (, ; ; Upper Saxon: ; ) is the most populous city in the States of Germany, German state of Saxony. The city has a population of 628,718 inhabitants as of 2023. It is the List of cities in Germany by population, eighth-largest city in Ge ...
, Germany.Start - Islamic manuscripts at the Leipzig University Library


See also

*
Timbuktu Manuscripts Timbuktu Manuscripts, or Tombouctou Manuscripts, is a blanket term for the large number of historically significant manuscripts that have been preserved for centuries in private households in Timbuktu, a city in northern Mali. The collections i ...
* Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation


References


External links

*
Fihrist
', a catalogue of Islamic manuscripts
The Islamic Manuscript AssociationJournal of Islamic Manuscripts
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