Radzivilov, supporting himself by teaching and translating; his married life, however, was unhappy, and he divorced his wife.
Career
Some of Levinsohn's first literary efforts were in the domain of Hebrew poetry. Among others, he wrote a patriotic poem on the expulsion of the French from the Russian Empire, which was transmitted to the minister of the interior by General Giers, the commandant of the Radzivilov garrison. Levinsohn himself regarded his verses as mere literary exercises, and did not attempt to print them; the greater part of them was lost. Excessive study brought on nervous disorders, and Levinsohn journeyed to
Brody
Brody (, ; ; ; ) is a city in Zolochiv Raion, Lviv Oblast, Zolochiv Raion, Lviv Oblast, western Ukraine. It is located in the valley of the upper Styr, Styr River, approximately northeast of the oblast capital, Lviv. Brody hosts the administrati ...
, then the centre of the
Haskalah
The ''Haskalah'' (; literally, "wisdom", "erudition" or "education"), often termed the Jewish Enlightenment, was an intellectual movement among the Jews of Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe, with a certain influence on those in Wester ...
, in order to consult the local physicians. There the future reformer of the Ukrainian Jews found a congenial atmosphere in the circle of the ''Maskilim''. He soon made the acquaintance of
Isaac Erter
Isaac Erter (, ; 1792 – April 1851) was a Polish-Jewish satirist and poet of the Galician Haskalah. His Hebrew prose has been compared to that of writers Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Börne.
Biography
Isaac Erter was born into the family of a p ...
, the Hebrew satirist, and later of
Solomon Rapoport. Though engaged as a bookkeeper in the local bank, he found time to continue his studies. Before long he passed the teacher's examinations and was appointed to teach Hebrew at the gymnasium of
Tarnopol
Ternopil, known until 1944 mostly as Tarnopol, is a city in western Ukraine, located on the banks of the Seret (river), Seret River. Ternopil is one of the major cities of Western Ukraine and the historical regions of Galicia (Central Europe ...
. There he soon became intimate with the scholar
Joseph Perl
Joseph Perl (also ''Josef Perl''; November 10, 1773, in Ternopil – October 1, 1839, in Ternopil), was an Ashkenazi Jewish educator and writer, a scion of the Haskalah or Jewish Enlightenment. He wrote in Hebrew, Yiddish, and German; in 1819, ...
, through whose influence he secured an instructorship at the Hebrew college of Brody.
Levinsohn's new position brought him into close relations with
Nachman Krochmal
Nachman HaKohen Krochmal (; born in Brody, Galicia, on 17 February 1785; died at Ternopil on 31 July 1840) was a Jewish Galician philosopher, theologian, and historian.
Biography
Nachman HaKohen Krochmal began studying Talmud at an early ...
of
Zolkiev
Zhovkva is a city in Lviv Raion, Lviv Oblast (region) of western Ukraine. Zhovkva hosts the administration of Zhovkva urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. Its population is approximately
History
A village named ''Vynnyky'' was men ...
, an authority on all questions of rabbinical learning and Jewish custom. In 1817 he submitted to Krochmal his first critical study, entitled ''Ha-Mazkir'', and Krochmal was so favorably impressed with the work that he offered to contribute toward the expense of publication. Unfortunately, it was never printed, and only a part of it was incorporated in ''Te'uddah'' and ''Bet Yehudah''.
About this time he wrote a satire on the
Hasidim
Ḥasīd (, "pious", "saintly", "godly man"; plural "Hasidim") is a Jewish honorific, frequently used as a term of exceptional respect in the Talmudic and early medieval periods. It denotes a person who is scrupulous in his observance of Jewish ...
entitled ''Dibre Tzaddikim''. Returning to Kremenetz in the same year, he began his ''Te'uddah be-Yisrael'', a work destined to leave an indelible impression on a whole generation of Ukrainian Jews. It was finished in 1823, but was not published until 1828. The book attempted to solve many problems of contemporary Jewish life in Ukraine. It urged the study of the Scriptures before the Talmud, and the necessity of studying secular languages, particularly that of one's country of residence. It urged also the study of science and literature, and the great importance for the Jews of engaging in agricultural and industrial work. It strongly counselled the abandoning of petty trade and of other uncertain sources of livelihood.
Levinsohn's advice did not please the Hasidim, who opposed him in many ways and so embittered his existence that he was compelled to leave Kremenetz. Repairing to Berdychev, he became a private tutor in the family of a wealthy Jew, and, gathering about him a circle of progressive friends, organized a society for the promotion of culture. Regarding it as his special mission to carry enlightenment to the young generation, he resided successively in Ostrog, Nemirov, and Tulchin. On his way to the last named place Levinsohn stopped at Kaminka, the estate of
Prince Witgenstein, the
field-marshal
Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army (in countries without the rank of Generalissimo), and as such, few persons ...
of the Russian Empire. When the prince heard of Levinsohn's arrival he invited him to his house, assigned him a suite of rooms, and kept him there through the entire summer. The field-marshal liked to pass his evenings in conversation with the learned Jew, and often followed the latter's advice.
Later life
In 1823, Levinsohn was compelled by failing health to return to Kremenetz. Soon after his arrival there he was confined to his bed by a sickness that kept him bedridden for twelve years. Notwithstanding this, he never resigned himself to mental inactivity, and during these long years of suffering he made himself familiar with Arabic, Greek, and Syriac, and studied the classics, political economy, and philosophy.
Levinsohn laboured assiduously for the well-being of his coreligionists in Ukraine. He worked out and submitted to the government various projects for the amelioration of the condition of the Jews, such as the plan he submitted to the
crown prince Konstantin in 1823, his memorandum to the minister of education in 1831, his project in regard to the censorship of Jewish books in 1833, and his plan for the establishment of Jewish colonies in 1837.
Nicholas I gave the last careful consideration. It is known, also, that the emperor wrote Levinsohn a personal letter in regard to this plan, but its contents are not known. The establishment of Jewish agricultural colonies in Bessarabia in 1838–39 and later and the organization of Jewish educational institutions undoubtedly owed much to Levinsohn's suggestions. The government appreciated his services, and, besides monetary rewards, offered him important positions, which he declined. The failure of his health compelled him to decline also appointment as member of the Jewish commission that sat in St. Petersburg in 1843, and in 1853 he again refused an appointment as member of the special commission on Jewish affairs. The following words were inscribed, at his own request, on his tombstone: "Out of nothing God called me to life. Alas, earthly life has passed, and I shall sleep again on the bosom of Mother Nature, as this stone testifies. I have fought the enemies of God not with the sharp sword, but with the Word. That I have fought for truth and justice before the Nations, ''Zerubbabel'' and ''Efes Damim'' bear witness."
He died in
Kremenetz
Kremenets (, ; ; ) is a city in Ternopil Oblast, western Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Kremenets Raion, and lies north-east of the Pochaiv Lavra. The city is situated in the historic region of Volhynia and features the 12th-cen ...
on February 13, 1860.
Work
''Te'uddah''
In 1827, a year before the appearance of ''Te'uddah,'' Levinsohn presented the manuscript, with an explanatory statement, to the Russian Imperial government, which accepted it with much favor, and awarded Levinsohn, on the representations of
D. N. Bludov, a thousand rubles "for a work in Hebrew having for its object the moral education of the Jewish people." In the same year the minister of public instruction, Prince
Lieven
The House of Lieven (; ;
) is one of the oldest and most aristocratic families of Scandinavian and Baltic-German origin.
History
The family is descended from Caupo of Turaida (Latvian, ''Kaupo''), the Livonian ''quasi rex'' who converte ...
, submitted to Levinsohn thirty-four questions on Jewish religion and history, among them the following: "What is the
Talmud
The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of Haskalah#Effects, modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...
?", "Who was the author of it?", "When, where, and in what language was it written?", "Have the Jews other books of such authority?", "Is there anything sensible in the Talmud? It is stated that it is full of improbable legends and fables.", "How could the authors of the Talmud permit themselves to add to, or detract from, the commandments of the Torah, which forbids that?", "What is the object of the numerous rites that consume so much useful time?", "Is it true that the Jews are the descendants of those
Pharisees
The Pharisees (; ) were a Jews, Jewish social movement and school of thought in the Levant during the time of Second Temple Judaism. Following the Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70), destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD, Pharisaic beliefs became ...
whom the lawgiver of the Christians had accused of lying and superstition?", "Is it true that the Talmud forbids the Jews the study of foreign languages and science, as well as the pursuit of agricultural occupations?", "What is Ḥasidism, and who was its founder?", "In what towns mainly do the Ḥasidim reside?", "Do the Jews possess schools or learned books?", "How do the Jewish masses regard their schools?", "Can the condition of the Jews be improved? and, if so, by what means?", "What
Messiah
In Abrahamic religions, a messiah or messias (; ,
; ,
; ) is a saviour or liberator of a group of people. The concepts of '' mashiach'', messianism, and of a Messianic Age originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible, in which a ''mashiach ...
is it that the Jews are expecting?", "Is it true that the Jews expect to rule the entire world when the Messiah arrives, and that members of other religions will be excluded from participation in the after-life?", and "How can a Jew be admitted into Christian society and be accorded full civic rights when he keeps himself aloof from the Christians and takes no interest in the welfare of the country where he resides?" Levinsohn referred the minister to his ''Te'uddah'' and to other works in various languages, transmitted to him concise answers to his questions, and promised to write a book in which these questions would be discussed in detail.
In 1828 ''Te'uddah'' saw the light. "It was not the yearning for fame," says Levinsohn in the preface, "that impelled me to write this book. ... Friends seeking truth and light asked me to point out to them the true way of life; they wish to know what learning, aside from the Talmud and its commentaries, it is necessary for a Jew to acquire for the perfection and refinement of his nature as a man and a Jew."
Levinsohn claims that
Greek philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC. Philosophy was used to make sense of the world using reason. It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysic ...
originated with the Jews.
''Bet Yehudah''
Levinsohn now undertook his larger work, ''Bet Yehudah'', which was "to expose to Christian eyes the world of Jewish spiritual life founded on the principles of highest morality, a world then unknown to Ukrainian Christians." He wished, also, to make his work of educational value to the Jewish people, so that uninstructed coreligionists would see Judaism in its true light. At the same time he found himself obliged to exercise great care in the treatment of the subject in order to avoid creating undue antagonism. Levinsohn presents in his "Bet Yehudah" a wonderfully clear and logical exposition of Jewish religious philosophy. According to him the Jewish religion may be summed up in two principles of belief: faith in
one God
Monotheism is the belief that one God is the only, or at least the dominant deity.F. L. Cross, Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. A ...
, which involves the negation of
idol-worship; and
love of one's neighbour. He shows by numerous citations that the latter means the love not only of one Jew for another, but the love for any neighbour, irrespective of faith. He presents a history of the various
Jewish sects
Jewish religious movements, sometimes called " denominations", include diverse groups within Judaism which have developed among Jews from ancient times. Samaritans are also considered ethnic Jews by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, although they a ...
, enumerates the contributions of the Jews to learning and civilization, and at the end suggests a plan for the reorganization of Jewish education in Ukraine. He urges the necessity of founding rabbinical seminaries fashioned after the German institutions, training the Jewish youth in religious and secular learning, opening elementary Jewish schools throughout the
Pale
Pale may refer to:
Jurisdictions
* Medieval areas of English conquest:
** Pale of Calais, in France (1360–1558)
** The Pale, or the English Pale, in Ireland
*Pale of Settlement, area of permitted Jewish settlement, western Russian Empire (179 ...
, abolishing the institution of ''
melammedim'', and establishing agricultural and industrial schools.
''Bet Yehudah'' exerted a powerful influence on the Jews of Russian Empire and gave a plan of action to the progressive elements in Russian Empire Jewry. The book acquired renown outside of the Russian Empire also. It was translated into Polish, and the scholar Geiger read several chapters of it before an audience in the Breslau synagogue. But though ''Bet Yehudah'' was completed in 1829, it remained unpublished until 1838.
''Efes Dammim'' and other polemical works
Around this time, the Jewish community of
Zaslavl
Zaslawye or Zaslavl is a town in Minsk District, Minsk Region, Belarus. It is located northwest of the capital Minsk. In 2009, its population was 14,400. As of 2025, it has a population of 17,317.
History
According to chronicles, Zaslawye was ...
in Volhynia was accused of
ritual murder
Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease deity, gods, a human ruler, public or jurisdictional demands for justice by capital punishment, an authoritative/prie ...
; many families were imprisoned, and the entire community was in despair. Levinsohn's opponents then laid aside their enmity and turned to him as the only man capable of proving the falsity of the accusation. In spite of his sickness Levinsohn began his ''Efes Dammim'', in defense of the accused Jews. But the necessary means not being forthcoming, he was obliged to spend his own money in collecting material and information. "The purpose of my book," says Levinsohn, "is to acquit the Jews before the eyes of Christians, and to save them from the false accusation of using Christian blood." ''Efes Dammim'' is written in the form of a
dialogue
Dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog in American and British English spelling differences, American English) is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literature, literary and theatrical form that depicts suc ...
between a
patriarch
The highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Roman Catholic Church (above major archbishop and primate), the Hussite Church, Church of the East, and some Independent Catholic Churches are termed patriarchs (and ...
of the
Greek Church in Jerusalem, Simias, and the chief rabbi in the Jewish synagogue there. The book shows the remarkable dialectic talent of the author. It was completed in 1834, published in 1837, republished three times, and was translated into English at the time of the "
Damascus Affair" in 1840, at the instance of Sir
Moses Montefiore
Sir Moses Haim Montefiore, 1st Baronet, (24 October 1784 – 28 July 1885) was a British financier and banker, activist, Philanthropy, philanthropist and Sheriffs of the City of London, Sheriff of London. Born to an History ...
and
Adolphe Crémieux
Isaac-Jacob Adolphe Crémieux (; 30 April 1796 – 10 February 1880) was a French lawyer and politician who served as Minister of Justice under the Second Republic (1848) and Government of National Defense (1870–1871). Raised Jewish, he ...
. It was translated also into Russian (1883) and German (1884; another German edition appeared in 1892). Another polemical work, ''Yemin Tzidki'', Levinsohn proves the absurdity of the accusations against Judaism and the Talmud. This work was left by him in manuscript.
Other polemical works written by Levinsohn are ''Aḥiyyah Shiloni ha-Ḥozeh'' (Leipzig, 1841) and ''Ta'ar ha-Sofer'' (Odessa, 1863). ''Aḥiyyah Shiloni ha-Ḥozeh'' is directed against the work of the English missionary
Alexander McCaul
Alexander McCaul (16 May 1799 – 13 November 1863) was an Irish Hebraist and missionary to the Jews.
McCaul studied Hebrew and German in Warsaw and later moved to St. Petersburg, where he was received by Alexander I of Russia. After returning ...
entitled ''The Paths of the World'' (London, 1839), and constitutes an introduction to Levinsohn's larger work ''Zerubbabel'', completed in 1853. This latter work was published, in part, by his nephew David Baer Nathansohn (Leipzig, 1863); the entire work was published later in Warsaw (1876). This work, which occupied twelve years, and was continued through sickness and suffering, was not only a defense of Judaism, but also an exposition of the value of traditional law in the Jewish religion, and of the great wisdom and moral force of its expounders and teachers. The ''Ta'ar ha-Sofer'' is directed against the
Karaites.
Levinsohn as a philologist
In addition to these, Levinsohn wrote on Hebrew etymology and comparative philology. In this field he published ''Bet ha-Oẓar'', the first and second parts of which appeared in Vilna in 1841; the first part is entitled ''Shorashe Lebanon'', and includes studies of Hebrew roots; the second part comprises articles on various subjects, and ''Abne Millu'im'', a supplement to ''Bet Yehudah''. After Levinsohn's death Nathansohn published ''Toledot Shem'' (Warsaw, 1877) and ''Ohole Shem'' (Warsaw, 1893), both containing philological studies arranged in alphabetical order, and also corrections of
Ben Zeb's ''Otzar ha-Shorashim'', which was republished by
Letteris. Levinsohn left a number of works in manuscript, including ''Pittuḥe Ḥotam'', on the period of the Canticles; ''Yizre El'', miscellaneous essays; ''Be'er Yitzḥak'', correspondence with contemporary scholars; and ''Eshkol ha-Sofer'', letters, poetry, and humorous papers.
Discussions of vegetarianism
Joseph Jacobs
Joseph Jacobs (29 August 1854 – 30 January 1916) was an Australian-born folklorist, literary critic and historian who became a notable collector and publisher of English folklore.
Born in Sydney to a Jewish family, his work went on to popula ...
and
Judah David Eisenstein
Julius (Judah David) Eisenstein (November 12, 1854 – May 17, 1956) () was a Polish-Jewish-American anthologist, diarist, encyclopedist, Hebraist, historian, philanthropist, and Orthodox polemicist born in Międzyrzec Podlaski (known in Yiddis ...
have suggested that Levinsohn may have been the first Jewish figure to discuss "the modern question of vegetarianism."
According to Jacobs and Eisenstein, Levinsohn justifies the strictness of the rules of ''
ṭerefah'' with reference to vegetetarianism, and he attributes the longevity of the generations from
Adam
Adam is the name given in Genesis 1–5 to the first human. Adam is the first human-being aware of God, and features as such in various belief systems (including Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism and Islam).
According to Christianity, Adam ...
to
Noah
Noah (; , also Noach) appears as the last of the Antediluvian Patriarchs (Bible), patriarchs in the traditions of Abrahamic religions. His story appears in the Hebrew Bible (Book of Genesis, chapters 5–9), the Quran and Baháʼí literature, ...
to their vegetarian diet. The good morals and keen intellect of the Jews, he says, are largely due to their scant eating of meat.
[Levinsohn, ''Zerubbabel'', Book 4, chapter 51.]
References
External links
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Levinsohn, Isaac Baer
1788 births
1860 deaths
Jewish writers
Jews from the Russian Empire
People from Kremenets
Writers from Ternopil Oblast
People from Volhynian Governorate
People of the Haskalah
Jewish Ukrainian writers