Irish Catholics () are an
ethnoreligious group native to
Ireland
Ireland (, ; ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe. Geopolitically, the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially Names of the Irish state, named Irelan ...
, defined by their adherence to
Catholic Christianity and their shared
Irish ethnic, linguistic, and cultural heritage.The term distinguishes Catholics of Irish descent, particularly in contexts of national identity, political history, and diaspora, from other Catholic populations globally.
They constitute the majority population in the
Republic of Ireland
Ireland ( ), also known as the Republic of Ireland (), is a country in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe consisting of 26 of the 32 Counties of Ireland, counties of the island of Ireland, with a population of about 5.4 million. ...
, where approximately 3.9 million people identified as Catholic in the 2022 census,
and a significant minority in
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland ( ; ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, part of the United Kingdom in the north-east of the island of Ireland. It has been #Descriptions, variously described as a country, province or region. Northern Ireland shares Repub ...
, with around 820,000 adherents.
The
Irish diaspora
The Irish diaspora () refers to ethnic Irish people and their descendants who live outside the island of Ireland.
The phenomenon of migration from Ireland is recorded since the Early Middle Ages,Flechner, Roy; Meeder, Sven (2017). The Irish ...
has established Irish Catholic communities worldwide, particularly in the
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
,
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
,
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
, and the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
, where they have played a major role in shaping cultural, religious, and political landscapes.
Historically, Irish Catholics experienced systemic discrimination, especially under British rule, through the imposition of
Penal Laws in the 17th and 18th centuries that restricted their political, social, and economic rights. The
Great Famine (1845–1852) accelerated mass emigration, leading to the growth of Irish Catholic communities abroad. In countries such as the United States and Australia, Irish Catholics often faced
anti-Catholic prejudice but gradually gained political influence, producing prominent leaders such as U.S. Presidents
John F. Kennedy and
Joe Biden
Joseph Robinette Biden Jr. (born November 20, 1942) is an American politician who was the 46th president of the United States from 2021 to 2025. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party, he served as the 47th vice p ...
. Irish Catholicism has also contributed to global Catholic culture, notably through traditions like
Saint Patrick's Day
Saint Patrick's Day, or the Feast of Saint Patrick (), is a religious and cultural holiday held on 17 March, the traditional death date of Saint Patrick (), the foremost patron saint of Ireland.
Saint Patrick's Day was made an official Chris ...
.
Definition and identity
Irish Catholics are characterised by their dual identity as both adherents of the
Catholic Church
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
and members of the Irish ethnic group. This ethnoreligious identity combines religious devotion with cultural elements such as the
Irish language
Irish (Standard Irish: ), also known as Irish Gaelic or simply Gaelic ( ), is a Celtic language of the Indo-European language family. It is a member of the Goidelic languages of the Insular Celtic sub branch of the family and is indigenous ...
, Gaelic traditions, and a shared history of resilience against oppression.
Unlike
Irish Protestants, who often aligned with British identity, Irish Catholics historically identified with Irish nationalism, particularly in opposition to British rule.The Catholic Church has been a cornerstone of this identity, providing spiritual guidance, education through Catholic schools, and community cohesion, especially during periods of persecution.
In Ireland, the Church historically shaped social norms, influencing marriage, education, and morality. In the diaspora, Irish Catholics maintained their faith through parish networks and cultural practices, such as devotion to saints like
Saint Patrick.
While the influence of Catholicism in Ireland has waned due to secularisation and church scandals, the ethnoreligious identity remains strong among diaspora communities, where it is expressed through festivals, literature, and political activism.
History
Early history and the Reformation
Catholicism in Ireland traces its roots to the 5th century, with the arrival of Christianity attributed to
Saint Patrick. By the Middle Ages, Ireland was a center of
Celtic Christianity
Celtic Christianity is a form of Christianity that was common, or held to be common, across the Celtic languages, Celtic-speaking world during the Early Middle Ages. The term Celtic Church is deprecated by many historians as it implies a unifi ...
, characterised by monastic traditions and distinct practices, though aligned with the
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
. The
English Reformation
The English Reformation began in 16th-century England when the Church of England broke away first from the authority of the pope and bishops Oath_of_Supremacy, over the King and then from some doctrines and practices of the Catholic Church ...
in the 16th century disrupted this, as English rule imposed Protestantism, confiscating Catholic lands and suppressing monasteries.
Irish Catholics resisted, maintaining their faith through clandestine practices, setting the stage for centuries of religious and political conflict.
Penal Laws and Catholic Emancipation
From 1695, the
Penal Laws restricted Catholic rights, barring them from owning land, holding public office, or practicing their religion openly.
Catholics adapted through
hedge schools and secret Masses at
Mass rocks, preserving their faith and culture. The campaign for
Catholic Emancipation, led by
Daniel O'Connell, culminated in the Catholic Relief Act of 1829, restoring many rights and enabling greater political participation.
Great Famine and emigration
The
Great Famine (1845–1852) killed over a million and drove millions to emigrate, primarily to the
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
,
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
, and
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
.
Irish Catholics formed tight-knit communities abroad, building churches, schools, and mutual aid societies. Despite facing
anti-Catholic prejudice, such as the
Know Nothing
The American Party, known as the Native American Party before 1855 and colloquially referred to as the Know Nothings, or the Know Nothing Party, was an Old Stock Americans, Old Stock Nativism in United States politics, nativist political movem ...
movement in the U.S., they preserved their ethnoreligious identity.
Home Rule, independence, and the Troubles
Irish Catholics were central to the push for
Home Rule
Home rule is the government of a colony, dependent country, or region by its own citizens. It is thus the power of a part (administrative division) of a state or an external dependent country to exercise such of the state's powers of governan ...
and
Irish independence, with figures like
Charles Stewart Parnell and
Éamon de Valera
Éamon de Valera (; ; first registered as George de Valero; changed some time before 1901 to Edward de Valera; 14 October 1882 – 29 August 1975) was an American-born Irish statesman and political leader. He served as the 3rd President of Ire ...
advocating for self-governance. The
Easter Rising
The Easter Rising (), also known as the Easter Rebellion, was an armed insurrection in Ireland during Easter Week in April 1916. The Rising was launched by Irish republicans against British rule in Ireland with the aim of establishing an ind ...
of 1916 and the subsequent
Irish War of Independence
The Irish War of Independence (), also known as the Anglo-Irish War, was a guerrilla war fought in Ireland from 1919 to 1921 between the Irish Republican Army (1919–1922), Irish Republican Army (IRA, the army of the Irish Republic) and Unite ...
were heavily Catholic-driven, leading to the establishment of the
Irish Free State
The Irish Free State (6 December 192229 December 1937), also known by its Irish-language, Irish name ( , ), was a State (polity), state established in December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921. The treaty ended the three-ye ...
in 1922. In
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland ( ; ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, part of the United Kingdom in the north-east of the island of Ireland. It has been #Descriptions, variously described as a country, province or region. Northern Ireland shares Repub ...
, the
Troubles (1960s–1998) saw Irish Catholics face discrimination and violence, though the
Good Friday Agreement of 1998 reduced tensions.
Modern era
Since the 1990s, the influence of the Catholic Church in Ireland has significantly declined due to increasing secularisation and a series of high-profile scandals, including revelations about the
Magdalene Laundries and widespread clerical abuse. These events have led to a substantial erosion of public trust in the Church.
For instance, the 2022 census reported that 69.1% of the population identified as Catholic, a notable decrease from previous decades.
Despite this decline within Ireland, Irish Catholic identity remains robust among diaspora communities. This identity is preserved and expressed through various cultural festivals, community organisations, and religious practices.
Events such as
Saint Patrick's Day
Saint Patrick's Day, or the Feast of Saint Patrick (), is a religious and cultural holiday held on 17 March, the traditional death date of Saint Patrick (), the foremost patron saint of Ireland.
Saint Patrick's Day was made an official Chris ...
parades, Irish music and dance festivals, and Gaelic language classes serve as focal points for cultural expression and community cohesion among Irish emigrants and their descendants.
Organisations like the
Ancient Order of Hibernians and cultural centres such as the Irish Cultural Society of San Antonio play pivotal roles in maintaining Irish Catholic traditions abroad. These institutions organise events, provide educational resources, and foster a sense of community among the Irish diaspora.
Furthermore, initiatives like
Ireland Reaching Out have been instrumental in connecting the global Irish diaspora with their ancestral roots. By facilitating genealogical research and organising cultural exchange programmes, such initiatives help sustain Irish Catholic identity across generations and geographies.
Global diaspora
United States
The U.S. hosts the largest Irish Catholic diaspora, with approximately 20 million Americans claiming Irish ancestry and Catholic faith.
Mass immigration during the Famine established communities in cities like
New York City
New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
,
Boston
Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...
, and
Chicago
Chicago is the List of municipalities in Illinois, most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and in the Midwestern United States. With a population of 2,746,388, as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the List of Unite ...
, where Irish Catholics faced
anti-Catholic prejudice but built influential institutions, such as
St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York
St. Patrick's Cathedral is a Catholic cathedral in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is the seat of the Archbishop of New York as well as a parish church. The cathedral occupies a city block bounded by Fifth Avenue, M ...
. Irish Catholics shaped American politics, supporting the
Democratic Party and labor movements, and produced leaders like Presidents
John F. Kennedy and
Joe Biden
Joseph Robinette Biden Jr. (born November 20, 1942) is an American politician who was the 46th president of the United States from 2021 to 2025. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party, he served as the 47th vice p ...
.
Canada
Canada’s 4.8 million Irish Catholics, concentrated in
Ontario
Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
,
Quebec
Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...
, and
Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland and Labrador is the easternmost province of Canada, in the country's Atlantic region. The province comprises the island of Newfoundland and the continental region of Labrador, having a total size of . As of 2025 the populatio ...
, descend from Famine-era migrants.
They influenced Quebec’s Catholic institutions and Newfoundland’s distinct Irish culture, contributing figures like
Thomas D’Arcy McGee.
Australia
Australia’s 7.2 million Irish Catholics, many descended from convicts and Famine migrants, have shaped the nation’s education and labor systems.
Figures like
Daniel Mannix, Archbishop of Melbourne, were pivotal in advocating for Catholic rights.
Saint Patrick’s Day celebrations remain a major cultural event.
Other regions
In
Argentina
Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a country in the southern half of South America. It covers an area of , making it the List of South American countries by area, second-largest country in South America after Brazil, the fourt ...
, around 500,000 Irish Catholics, primarily in
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires, controlled by the government of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Argentina. It is located on the southwest of the RÃo de la Plata. Buenos Aires is classified as an Alpha− glob ...
, maintain cultural ties through Gaelic sports and Catholic parishes.
New Zealand
New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of islands of New Zealand, over 600 smaller islands. It is the List of isla ...
’s 600,000 Irish Catholics, concentrated on the
West Coast, contributed to mining and labor movements. Smaller communities exist in the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
(400,000) and
France
France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
(15,000), often integrated but retaining cultural markers.
Culture and traditions
Irish Catholic culture blends religious devotion with Irish heritage, expressed through festivals, literature, and community life.
Saint Patrick’s Day, celebrated globally, is a hallmark of Irish Catholic identity, featuring parades, religious services, and cultural displays. Devotions to saints, such as
Saint Patrick and
Our Lady of Knock, and practices like the
Rosary
The Rosary (; , in the sense of "crown of roses" or "garland of roses"), formally known as the Psalter of Jesus and Mary (Latin: Psalterium Jesu et Mariae), also known as the Dominican Rosary (as distinct from other forms of rosary such as the ...
are central to religious life. The
Irish language
Irish (Standard Irish: ), also known as Irish Gaelic or simply Gaelic ( ), is a Celtic language of the Indo-European language family. It is a member of the Goidelic languages of the Insular Celtic sub branch of the family and is indigenous ...
and Gaelic traditions, including music and dance, remain vibrant, especially in Ireland and diaspora communities.
Irish Catholics have contributed significantly to global literature, with writers like
James Joyce
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (born James Augusta Joyce; 2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influentia ...
,
Seamus Heaney
Seamus Justin Heaney (13 April 1939 – 30 August 2013) was an Irish Irish poetry, poet, playwright and translator. He received the 1995 Nobel Prize in Literature. Among his best-known works is ''Death of a Naturalist'' (1966), his first m ...
, and
Edna O’Brien exploring themes of faith and identity. In the diaspora, cultural organisations, such as the
Ancient Order of Hibernians, preserve Irish Catholic heritage through social and charitable activities.
Socio-political impact
Irish Catholics have been pivotal in Irish nationalism, with leaders like
Daniel O'Connell and
Éamon de Valera
Éamon de Valera (; ; first registered as George de Valero; changed some time before 1901 to Edward de Valera; 14 October 1882 – 29 August 1975) was an American-born Irish statesman and political leader. He served as the 3rd President of Ire ...
advocating for self-determination.
In the diaspora, they influenced politics, notably supporting the
Democratic Party in the U.S. and labor movements in Australia. In Northern Ireland, Irish Catholics played a key role in the civil rights movement and the peace process.
Discrimination and controversies faced by Irish Catholics
Irish Catholics have faced significant discrimination and controversies, shaped by religious, political, and social tensions in Ireland and the diaspora. This section examines key instances of discrimination, including the Penal Laws, sectarian biases, and anti-Catholic prejudice, alongside controversies such as Catholic Church scandals and sectarian conflicts.
Discrimination
Penal Laws (1695–1829)
The Penal Laws, enacted under British rule, restricted Irish Catholics' rights, prohibiting land ownership, public office, voting, and open religious practice.
Catholics relied on clandestine "
hedge schools" and secret Masses at "
Mass rocks" to preserve their faith. The laws marginalised Catholics economically and politically until the
Catholic Relief Act of 1829, driven by
Daniel O'Connell's campaign, restored many rights.
Sectarian discrimination in Northern Ireland
In Northern Ireland, Irish Catholics faced systemic discrimination, particularly in employment and housing, under Protestant-majority governance. A 1987 survey found 80% of workforces were predominantly one denomination, with 20% overwhelmingly uni-denominational. Housing was highly segregated, with 92.5% of public housing religiously divided by 2004, rising to 98% in Belfast. The 1960s civil rights movement sought to address these inequities, but tensions persisted until the
Good Friday Agreement (1998).
Anti-Catholic prejudice in the diaspora
In the United States, Irish Catholic immigrants faced intense anti-Catholic sentiment, particularly during the
Great Famine (1845–1852).
The
Know Nothing
The American Party, known as the Native American Party before 1855 and colloquially referred to as the Know Nothings, or the Know Nothing Party, was an Old Stock Americans, Old Stock Nativism in United States politics, nativist political movem ...
movement targeted Catholics, leading to violence, such as the
St. Mary’s Church in New York and
1844 Philadelphia riots, which killed thirteen. "
No Irish Need Apply" signs reflected job discrimination.
In Australia, Irish Catholics, often convicts or famine migrants, faced prejudice from the
Anglo-Protestant majority, though they later gained influence.
In Great Britain, particularly in cities such as Liverpool, Irish Catholics faced widespread discrimination, including physical violence and exclusion from employment based on their names or accents.
In Glasgow, sectarian tensions were further inflamed by football rivalries, notably between
Celtic and
Rangers, which deepened hostility and reinforced anti-Irish Catholic sentiment.
Controversies
Catholic Church scandals
The
Catholic Church
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
in Ireland has faced major controversies, particularly since the 1990s. The
Magdalene Laundries, operating from the 18th to 20th centuries, subjected unmarried mothers to harsh labour and abuse, drawing widespread condemnation when exposed. Clerical abuse scandals revealed widespread child sexual abuse by clergy, with institutional cover-ups further eroding trust. Mass attendance fell from 91% in 1975 to 36% in 2016, reflecting secularisation. The 2022 census reported 69.1% of Ireland’s population as Catholic, a decline from previous decades.
Social and political stances
The Church’s opposition to divorce, abortion, and same-sex marriage sparked controversy, clashing with Ireland’s growing secular values.
Voters approved same-sex marriage in 2015 and repealed the abortion ban in 2018, rejecting Church positions. The Church’s historical control over 90% of state-funded primary schools and institutions like mother-and-baby homes, where children faced neglect, further fuelled debate.
Sectarian conflicts
In Northern Ireland, sectarian tensions during the
Troubles (1960s–1998) were a major controversy. Irish Catholic involvement in republican groups like the
IRA was divisive, viewed as resistance by some and terrorism by others.
Protestant
Orange Order
The Loyal Orange Institution, commonly known as the Orange Order, is an international Protestant fraternal order based in Northern Ireland and primarily associated with Ulster Protestants. It also has lodges in England, Grand Orange Lodge of ...
marches through Catholic areas often provoked conflict. The
Good Friday Agreement reduced violence, but tensions persist.
Broader implications
Discrimination and controversies have shaped Irish Catholic identity, fostering resilience but also secularisation. In Ireland, the Church’s influence has waned, while diaspora communities maintain cultural ties through festivals and organisations. Historical struggles, such as those of U.S. Presidents John F. Kennedy and Joe Biden, highlight eventual acceptance in some regions.
Demographics
The following table summarizes the estimated Irish Catholic population worldwide, based on recent census data and scholarly estimates:
Notable figures
Prominent Irish Catholics include:
-
Daniel O'Connell (1775–1847), leader of Catholic Emancipation.
-
Éamon de Valera
Éamon de Valera (; ; first registered as George de Valero; changed some time before 1901 to Edward de Valera; 14 October 1882 – 29 August 1975) was an American-born Irish statesman and political leader. He served as the 3rd President of Ire ...
(1882–1975), President and Taoiseach of Ireland.
-
James Joyce
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (born James Augusta Joyce; 2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influentia ...
(1882–1941), novelist exploring Irish Catholic identity.
-
John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), first Irish Catholic U.S. President.
-
Daniel Mannix (1864–1963), influential Australian archbishop.
See also
*
Catholic Church in Ireland
*
Celtic Christianity
Celtic Christianity is a form of Christianity that was common, or held to be common, across the Celtic languages, Celtic-speaking world during the Early Middle Ages. The term Celtic Church is deprecated by many historians as it implies a unifi ...
*
Irish Americans
*
Irish Canadians
*
Irish Australians
*
Penal Laws
*
Saint Patrick's Day
Saint Patrick's Day, or the Feast of Saint Patrick (), is a religious and cultural holiday held on 17 March, the traditional death date of Saint Patrick (), the foremost patron saint of Ireland.
Saint Patrick's Day was made an official Chris ...
*
The Troubles
The Troubles () were an ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland that lasted for about 30 years from the late 1960s to 1998. Also known internationally as the Northern Ireland conflict, it began in the late 1960s and is usually deemed t ...
References
Further reading
* Anbinder, Tyler (2002). ''Five Points: The Nineteenth-Century New York City Neighborhood''. New York: Plume.
* Barr, Colin (2020). ''Ireland's Empire: The Roman Catholic Church in the English-Speaking World, 1829–1914''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Kenny, Kevin (2000). ''The American Irish: A History''. New York: Longman.
* McCaffrey, Lawrence J. (1997). ''The Irish Catholic Diaspora in America''. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press.
* O’Connor, Thomas H. (1995). ''The Boston Irish: A Political History''. Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Konecky.
External links
Library of Congress: Irish Immigration CollectionsAustralian Bureau of Statistics: Cultural DiversityTe Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand – Irish
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Ethnoreligious groups in Ireland
History of Catholicism in Ireland
Irish diaspora
Christian ethnoreligious groups