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The ionization chamber is the simplest type of gaseous ionisation detector, and is widely used for the detection and measurement of many types of
ionizing radiation Ionizing (ionising) radiation, including Radioactive decay, nuclear radiation, consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have enough energy per individual photon or particle to ionization, ionize atoms or molecules by detaching ...
, including
X-ray An X-ray (also known in many languages as Röntgen radiation) is a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than those of ultraviolet rays and longer than those of gamma rays. Roughly, X-rays have a wavelength ran ...
s,
gamma ray A gamma ray, also known as gamma radiation (symbol ), is a penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation arising from high energy interactions like the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei or astronomical events like solar flares. It consists o ...
s,
alpha particle Alpha particles, also called alpha rays or alpha radiation, consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay but may also be produce ...
s and beta particles. Conventionally, the term "ionization chamber" refers exclusively to those detectors which collect all the charges created by ''direct ionization'' within the gas through the application of an electric field. It uses the discrete charges created by each interaction between the incident radiation and the gas to produce an output in the form of a small
direct current Direct current (DC) is one-directional electric current, flow of electric charge. An electrochemical cell is a prime example of DC power. Direct current may flow through a conductor (material), conductor such as a wire, but can also flow throug ...
. This means individual ionising events cannot be measured, so the energy of different types of radiation cannot be differentiated, but it gives a very good measurement of overall ionising effect. It has a good uniform response to radiation over a wide range of energies and is the preferred means of measuring high levels of gamma radiation, such as in a radiation hot cell as they can tolerate prolonged periods in high radiation fields without degradation. They are widely used in the nuclear power industry, research labs, fire detection,
radiation protection Radiation protection, also known as radiological protection, is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as "The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this". Exposu ...
, and
environmental monitoring Environmental monitoring is the processes and activities that are done to characterize and describe the state of the environment. It is used in the preparation of environmental impact assessments, and in many circumstances in which human activit ...
.


Principle of operation

A gas ionization chamber measures the charge from the number of ion pairs created within a gas caused by incident radiation. It consists of a gas-filled chamber with two electrodes; known as
anode An anode usually is an electrode of a polarized electrical device through which conventional current enters the device. This contrasts with a cathode, which is usually an electrode of the device through which conventional current leaves the devic ...
and
cathode A cathode is the electrode from which a conventional current leaves a polarized electrical device such as a lead-acid battery. This definition can be recalled by using the mnemonic ''CCD'' for ''Cathode Current Departs''. Conventional curren ...
. The electrodes may be in the form of parallel plates (Parallel Plate Ionization Chambers: PPIC), or a cylinder with a coaxially located internal anode wire. A
voltage Voltage, also known as (electrical) potential difference, electric pressure, or electric tension, is the difference in electric potential between two points. In a Electrostatics, static electric field, it corresponds to the Work (electrical), ...
potential is applied between the electrodes to create an electric field in the fill gas. When gas atoms or molecules between the electrodes are ionized by incident
ionizing radiation Ionizing (ionising) radiation, including Radioactive decay, nuclear radiation, consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have enough energy per individual photon or particle to ionization, ionize atoms or molecules by detaching ...
, ion-pairs are created and the resultant positive ions and dissociated electrons move to the electrodes of the opposite polarity under the influence of the electric field. This generates an ionization current which is measured by an
electrometer An electrometer is an electrical instrument for measuring electric charge or electrical potential difference. There are many different types, ranging from historical handmade mechanical instruments to high-precision electronic devices. Modern ...
circuit in the region of
femtoampere The ampere ( , ; symbol: A), often shortened to amp,SI supports only the use of symbols and deprecates the use of abbreviations for units. is the unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). One ampere is equal to 1 c ...
s to picoamperes, depending on the chamber design, and is proportional to the radiation dose. The electric field has to be sufficiently strong to prevent the recombination of ion pairs which would diminish the ion current, and build-up of positive ions is prevented by their recombination with electrons when they reach the cathode. This mode of operation is referred to as "current" mode, meaning that the output signal is a continuous current, and not a pulse output as in the cases of the Geiger–Müller tube or the proportional counter. Referring to the accompanying ion-pair collection graph, it can be seen that in the ion chamber operating region the charge of a collected ion pair is effectively constant over a range of applied voltage, as due to its relatively low electric field strength the ion chamber does not have any multiplication effect. This is in distinction to the Geiger–Müller tube or the proportional counter whereby secondary electrons, and ultimately multiple avalanches, greatly amplify the original ionisation charges to produce measurable pulses.


Chamber types and construction

The following chamber types are commonly used.


Free-air chamber

This is a chamber freely open to atmosphere, where the fill gas is ambient air. The domestic smoke detector is a good example of this, where a natural flow of air through the chamber is necessary so that smoke particles can be detected by the change in ion current. Other examples are applications where the ions are created outside the chamber but are carried in by a forced flow of air or gas.


Vented chamber

These chambers are normally cylindrical and operate at atmospheric pressure, but to prevent ingress of moisture a filter containing a desiccant is installed in the vent line. This is to stop moisture building up in the interior of the chamber, which would otherwise be introduced by the "pump" effect of changing atmospheric air pressure. These chambers have a cylindrical body made of aluminium or plastic a few millimetres thick. The material is selected to have an atomic number similar to that of air so that the wall is said to be "air equivalent" over a range of radiation beam energies. This has the effect of ensuring the gas in the chamber is acting as though it were a portion of an infinitely large gas volume, and increases the accuracy by reducing interactions of gamma with the wall material. The higher the atomic number of the wall material, the greater the chance of interaction. The wall thickness is a trade-off between maintaining the air effect with a thicker wall, and increasing sensitivity by using a thinner wall. These chambers often have an end window made of material thin enough, such as mylar, so that beta particles can enter the gas volume. Gamma radiation enters both through the end window and the side walls. For hand-held instruments the wall thickness is made as uniform as possible to reduce photon directionality though any beta window response is obviously highly directional. Vented chambers are susceptible to small changes in efficiency with air pressure and correction factors can be applied for very accurate measurement applications.


Sealed low-pressure chamber

These are similar in construction to the vented chamber, but are sealed and operate at or around atmospheric pressure. These chambers also have the advantage of not requiring a vent and desiccant. To improve detection efficiency, they are filled with a
noble gas The noble gases (historically the inert gases, sometimes referred to as aerogens) are the members of Group (periodic table), group 18 of the periodic table: helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), radon (Rn) and, in some ...
because the highly electronegative oxygen in air easily captures free electrons, forming negative ions. The strength of the beta window limits the differential pressure from atmospheric pressure that can be tolerated, and common materials are stainless steel or titanium with a typical thickness of 25 μm.


High-pressure chamber

The efficiency of the chamber can be further increased by the use of a high-pressure gas. Typically a pressure of 8-10 atmospheres can be used, and various noble gases are employed. The higher pressure results in a greater gas density and thereby a greater chance of collision with the fill gas and ion-pair creation by incident radiation. Because of the increased wall thickness required to withstand this high pressure, only gamma radiation can be detected. These detectors are used in survey meters and for environmental monitoring.


Chamber geometry

Most commonly used for
radiation therapy Radiation therapy or radiotherapy (RT, RTx, or XRT) is a therapy, treatment using ionizing radiation, generally provided as part of treatment of cancer, cancer therapy to either kill or control the growth of malignancy, malignant cell (biology), ...
measurements is a cylindrical or "thimble" chamber. The active volume is housed within a thimble shaped cavity with an inner conductive surface (cathode) and a central anode. A bias voltage applied across the cavity collects ions and produces a current which can be measured with an electrometer. Parallel-plate chambers (PPIC) are shaped like a small disc, with circular collecting electrodes separated by a small gap, typically 2mm or less. The upper disc is extremely thin, allowing for much more accurate near-surface dose measurements than are possible with a cylindrical chamber. Monitor chambers are typically PPICs which are used to continuously measure such as a radiation beam's intensity. For example, within the head of
linear accelerator A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to linac) is a type of particle accelerator that accelerates charged subatomic particles or ions to a high speed by subjecting them to a series of oscillating electric potentials along a linear ...
s used for
radiotherapy Radiation therapy or radiotherapy (RT, RTx, or XRT) is a treatment using ionizing radiation, generally provided as part of cancer therapy to either kill or control the growth of malignant cells. It is normally delivered by a linear particle ...
. Multi-cavity ionization chambers can measure the intensity of the radiation beam in several different regions, providing beam symmetry and flatness information.


Research and calibration chambers

Early versions of the ion chamber were used by Marie and
Pierre Curie Pierre Curie ( ; ; 15 May 1859 – 19 April 1906) was a French physicist, Radiochemistry, radiochemist, and a pioneer in crystallography, magnetism, piezoelectricity, and radioactivity. He shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with his wife, ...
in their original work in isolating radioactive materials. Since then the ion chamber has been a widely used tool in the laboratory for research and calibration purposes.


Historical chambers


Condenser chamber

The condenser chamber has a secondary cavity within the stem which acts as a
capacitor In electrical engineering, a capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy by accumulating electric charges on two closely spaced surfaces that are insulated from each other. The capacitor was originally known as the condenser, a term st ...
. When this capacitor is fully charged, any ionization within the thimble counteracts this charge, and the change in charge can be measured. They are only practical for beams with energy of 2 MeV or less, and high stem leakage makes them unsuited to precise dosimetry.


Extrapolation chamber

Similar in design to a parallel plate chamber, the upper plate of an extrapolation chamber can be lowered using micrometer screws. Measurements can be taken with different plate spacing and extrapolated to a plate spacing of zero, i.e. the dose without the chamber.


Instrument types


Hand-held

Ion chambers are widely used in hand held radiation survey meters to measure beta and gamma radiation. They are particularly preferred for high dose rate measurements and for gamma radiation they give good accuracy for energies above 50-100 keV. There are two basic configurations; the "integral" unit with the chamber and electronics in the same case, and the "two-piece" instrument which has a separate ion chamber probe attached to the electronics module by a flexible cable. The chamber of the integral instrument is generally at the front of the case facing downwards, and for beta/gamma instruments there is a window in the bottom of the casing. This usually has a sliding shield which enables discrimination between gamma and beta radiation. The operator closes the shield to exclude beta, and can thereby calculate the rate of each radiation type. Some hand held instruments generate audible clicks similar to that produced by a G-M counter to assist operators, who use the audio feedback in radiation survey and contamination checks. As the ion chamber works in current mode, not pulse mode, this is synthesised from the radiation rate.


Installed

For industrial process measurements and interlocks with sustained high radiation levels, the ion chamber is the preferred detector. In these applications only the chamber is situated in the measurement area, and the electronics are remotely situated to protect them from radiation and connected by a cable. Installed instruments can be used for measuring ambient gamma for personnel protection and normally sound an alarm above a preset rate, though the Geiger–Müller tube instrument is generally preferred where high levels of accuracy are not required.


General precautions in use

Moisture is the main problem that affects the accuracy of ion chambers. The chamber's internal volume must be kept completely dry, and the vented type uses a desiccant to help with this. Because of the very low currents generated, any stray leakage current must be kept to a minimum in order to preserve accuracy. Invisible hygroscopic moisture on the surface of cable dielectrics and connectors can be sufficient to cause a leakage current which will swamp any radiation-induced ion current. This requires scrupulous cleaning of the chamber, its terminations and cables, and subsequent drying in an oven. "Guard rings" are generally used as a design feature on higher voltage tubes to reduce leakage through or along the surface of tube connection insulators, which can require a resistance in the order of 1013 Ω. For industrial applications with remote electronics, the ion chamber is housed in a separate enclosure which provides mechanical protection and contains a desiccant to remove moisture which could affect the termination resistance. In installations where the chamber is a long distance from the measuring electronics, readings can be affected by external electromagnetic radiation acting on the cable. To overcome this a local converter module is often used to translate the very low ion chamber currents to a pulse train or data signal related to the incident radiation. These are immune to electromagnetic effects.


Applications


Nuclear industry

Ionization chambers are widely used in the nuclear industry as they provide an output that is proportional to radiation dose. They find wide use in situations where a constant high dose rate is being measured as they have a greater operating lifetime than standard Geiger–Müller tubes, which suffer from gas break down and are generally limited to a life of about 1011 count events. Additionally, the Geiger–Müller tube cannot operate above about 104 counts per second, due to dead-time effects, whereas there is no similar limitation on the ion chamber.


Smoke detectors

The ionization chamber has found wide and beneficial use in smoke detectors. In an ionisation type smoke detector, ambient air is allowed to freely enter the ionization chamber. The chamber contains a small amount of
americium-241 Americium-241 (Am, Am-241) is an isotope of americium. Like all isotopes of americium, it is radioactive, with a half-life of . Am is the most common isotope of americium as well as the most prevalent isotope of americium in nuclear waste. It ...
, which is an emitter of
alpha particle Alpha particles, also called alpha rays or alpha radiation, consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay but may also be produce ...
s which produce a constant ion current. If
smoke Smoke is an aerosol (a suspension of airborne particulates and gases) emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is commonly an unwante ...
enters the detector, it disrupts this current because ions strike smoke particles and are neutralized. This drop in current triggers the alarm. The detector also has a reference chamber which is sealed but is ionized in the same way. Comparison of the ion currents in the two chambers allows compensation for changes due to air pressure, temperature, or the ageing of the source.


Medical radiation measurement

In medical physics and
radiotherapy Radiation therapy or radiotherapy (RT, RTx, or XRT) is a treatment using ionizing radiation, generally provided as part of cancer therapy to either kill or control the growth of malignant cells. It is normally delivered by a linear particle ...
, ionization chambers are used to ensure that the dose delivered from a therapy unit or radiopharmaceutical is what is intended. The devices used for radiotherapy are called "reference dosimeters", while those used for radiopharmaceuticals are called radioisotope dose calibrators - an inexact name for radionuclide radioactivity calibrators, which are used for measurement of radioactivity but not absorbed dose. A chamber will have a calibration factor established by a national standards laboratory such as ARPANSA in Australia or the NPL in the UK, or will have a factor determined by comparison against a transfer standard chamber traceable to national standards at the user's site.


Guidance on application use

In the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
the HSE has issued a user guide on selecting the correct radiation measurement instrument for the particular application concerned. This covers all radiation instrument technologies, and is a useful comparative guide to the use of ion chamber instruments.


See also

* Absorbed dose * Bragg–Gray cavity theory * Dosimetry *
Gaseous ionization detector Gaseous ionization detectors are radiation detection instruments used in particle physics to detect the presence of ionizing particles, and in radiation protection applications to measure ionizing radiation. They use the ionising effect of radia ...
* Sievert chamber * Stopping power (particle radiation)


Notes


References

{{Authority control Ionising radiation detectors Particle detectors Radiation protection