Intercultural Philosophy
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Global or intercultural philosophy is an approach to
philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
which emphasizes the integration of influences from different cultures. It can represent the meeting of different philosophical traditions, such as
Western philosophy Western philosophy refers to the Philosophy, philosophical thought, traditions and works of the Western world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of Western culture, beginning with the ancient Greek philosophy of the Pre ...
,
Asian philosophy Eastern philosophy (also called Asian philosophy or Oriental philosophy) includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South Asia, including Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, and Vietnamese philoso ...
, and
African philosophy African philosophy is the philosophical discourse produced using indigenous African thought systems. :African philosophers, African philosophers are found in the various academic fields of present philosophy, such as metaphysics, epistemology, E ...
. Writing for the ''IEP'', Ronnie Littlejohn distinguished comparative philosophy, "in which philosophers work on problems by intentionally setting into dialogue various sources from across cultural, linguistic, and philosophical streams", and world philosophy, "in which philosophers construct a philosophical system based on the fullness of global traditions of thought".
Thom Brooks Thomas "Thom" Brooks, (born 14 October 1973) is an American-British political philosopher and legal scholar. He is Professor of Law and Government in Durham Law School at Durham University with associate membership in the Department of Philoso ...
refers to global philosophy as an "unbounded approach to philosophy ... motivated by focus on improved ability to address philosophical problem-solving". While many precursors could be identified, such as
Paul Masson-Oursel Paul Masson-Oursel (5 September 1882 – 18 March 1956) was a French orientalist and philosopher, a pioneer of 'comparative philosophy'. Masson-Oursel was a student of Lucien Lévy-Bruhl, Henri Bergson, Emile Durkheim, Pierre Janet, André La ...
, Brajendranath Seal, and
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (; 5 September 188817 April 1975; natively Radhakrishna) was an Indian academician, philosopher and statesman who served as the President of India from 1962 to 1967. He previously served as the vice president of ...
, Sweet, William, ed. (2014), ''What is Intercultural Philosophy?'' Washington, DC, Council for Research and Values in Philosophy

intercultural philosophy as a concept emerged in the 1980s. It is frequently connected to German-speaking European thinkers pursuing an intercultural philosophical perspective.Chini, Tina “Interkulturelle Philosophie – Disziplin, Orientierung, Praxis?” ''polylog'' 12 (2004): 120-131.


The idea of intercultural philosophy

In the long history of philosophical thought there has always been a claim for universality, although many great thinkers from the past see philosophical value only in the western tradition and oversee what other parts of the world have achieved on their own over the centuries. Eurocentric philosophers such as
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a 19th-century German idealist. His influence extends across a wide range of topics from metaphysical issues in epistemology and ontology, to political philosophy and t ...
agree upon Greek being the only birthplace of philosophy and traditions such as the Chinese or Indian ones are only teachings of wisdom.Wimmer, Franz Martin (2004). ''Interkulturelle Philosophie.'' Vienna: UTB. Others speak of more than one birthplace and include Asian traditions.Mall, Ram Adhar et al. (1989). ''Die drei Geburtsorte der Philosophie. China, Indien, Europa.'' Bonn: Bouvier.
Karl Jaspers Karl Theodor Jaspers (; ; 23 February 1883 – 26 February 1969) was a German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher who had a strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry, and philosophy. His 1913 work ''General Psychopathology'' influenced many ...
, a German psychiatrist and philosopher, developed the theory of an
Axial Age ''Axial Age'' (also ''Axis Age'', from the German ) is a term coined by the German philosopher Karl Jaspers. It refers to broad changes in religious and philosophical thought that occurred in a variety of locations from about the 8th to the 3rd ...
, referring to the period from 800 BCE to 200 BCE, during which philosophical thinking evolved in China, Indian and the
Occident The Occident is a term for the West, traditionally comprising anything that belongs to the Western world. It is the antonym of the term ''Orient'', referring to the Eastern world. In English, it has largely fallen into disuse. The term occidental ...
.Mall, Ram Adhar (2000). ''Intercultural Philosophy.'' Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Jasper's theory is widely accepted by those philosophising interculturally. In contrast to any
eurocentrism Eurocentrism (also Eurocentricity or Western-centrism) refers to viewing Western world, the West as the center of world events or superior to other cultures. The exact scope of Eurocentrism varies from the entire Western world to just the con ...
there are those philosophers who believe that there needs to be communication as well as collaboration between different traditions and cultures especially in today's global situation,Kimmerle, Heinz (1994). ''Die Dimension des Interkulturellen.'' Amsterdam: Rodopi.Yousefi, Hamid Reza et al. (2005). ''Grundpositionen der interkulturellen Philosophie.'' Nordhausen: Traugott Bautz. given that intercultural interactions and encounters are a fact of human existence.Furtado, Gabriel Vincent “Intercultural Conflict in Asian Philosophy” in: Fornet-Betancourt, Raúl (Ed.). ''Unterwegs zur interkulturellen Philosophie.'' Frankfurt: IKO (1998). The goal is to extend one's thinking into including other cultures, to not only consider one tradition but as many as possible such as Asian, Anglo-American, Latin-American, Islamic, or African. It is no longer important to ask questions on your own for this would be a very regional approach. Intercultural philosophy shouldn't be an academic subject besides others but an attitude followed by everybody who philosophises. No matter what philosophical orientation, other culture's thoughts should be taken into consideration. For
Raimon Panikkar Raimon Panikkar Alemany, also known as Raimundo Panikkar and Raymond Panikkar (November 2, 1918 – August 26, 2010), was a Spanish Roman Catholic priest and a proponent of interfaith dialogue. As a scholar, he specialized in comparative rel ...
it is also important to connect religion and philosophy, as they are both key elements of human reality and important to many cultures. When developing an approach to intercultural philosophy one has to abandon the idea of using only one's own ways of demonstration and description but has to include other forms such as dance, music, architecture, rituals, art, literature, myths, proverbs, folk tales and so on. A manner of meeting has to be found to allow a variety of exchange where one's own tradition can be preserved and not be forged into one big
syncretism Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various school of thought, schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or religious assimilation, assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the ...
. The only way to stop cultures from being absorbed by
globalisation Globalization is the process of increasing interdependence and integration among the economies, markets, societies, and cultures of different countries worldwide. This is made possible by the reduction of barriers to international trade, th ...
and becoming something of a world culture, which is monoculturally predetermined, according to Fornet-Betancort, is the project of an intercultural dialogue.Fornet-Betancourt, Raúl (2000
Philosophical Presuppositions of Intercultural Dialogue
online at ''polylog: platform for Intercultural Philosophy.'' Retrieved 2010-09-07
Others view China and Japan as an example of intercultural practise that others could learn from as they have managed to integrate
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
without losing their own cultural identity.Furtado, Gabriel Vincent “Asian Perspectives For the Development of Intercultural Thought” in: Fornet-Betancourt, Raúl (Ed.). ''Kulturen der Philosophie.'' Aachen: 1996. Philosophers such as Wimmer and Mall postulate forms of dialogue in which all parties are on the same level ('Ebene der Gleichheit') without having any other power but the better argument.


Main thinkers

It is not possible to name any forefathers or -mothers of intercultural thought simply because there have always been individuals in the history of philosophy who have taken an intercultural approach in their theories. Although nothing defined and without much impact. Since intercultural philosophy has become a concern to more than just a couple of philosophers there are quite a few names to be mentioned. Their concepts of intercultural philosophy differ according to their personal backgrounds but what they all agree upon is the practical relevance this approach presents. They each have their own suggestions for how intercultural philosophy should respond to today's situation of globalisation.


Raúl Fornet-Betancourt

Fornet-Betancourt (born 1946) is a professor in the department for
missiology Missiology is the academic study of the Christian mission history and methodology. It began to be developed as an academic discipline in the 19th century. Definition Broadly speaking, missiology is "an interdisciplinary field of inquiry into Ch ...
in Aachen, Germany. He was born and raised in Cuba, where he already came in contact with more than one culture, namely with the European or Hispanic and the African culture. His main interest lies with the Latin-American philosophy, though he has declared he doesn't research the Latin-American philosophy on his own but with help from philosophers native to this tradition. Fornet-Betancourt sees the importance of an intercultural approach in the overcoming of any eurocentrism still dominating the world. The history of philosophy shouldn't be reconstructed on the basis of the expansionary development but by means of the diversity of all cultures of humankind. But not only the past should be taken into consideration, the redesign of the present is of equal importance. Intercultural philosophy is a means for making variety heard.


Heinz Kimmerle

Kimmerle (born 1930) is professor emeritus at the
Erasmus University Erasmus University Rotterdam ( ; abbreviated as EUR) is a public university, public research university located in Rotterdam, Netherlands. The university is named after Desiderius Erasmus, Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus, a 15th-century Christia ...
in Rotterdam. He intends to develop a way from colonial thinking towards a dialogue with the African philosophy based on complete equality in order to conceive of an intercultural concept of philosophy. For Kimmerle, interculturality influences everything and therefore philosophy has to adapt itself to interculturality in all sub areas as to not lose its practical relevance. In his opinion
philosophy of art Aesthetics (also spelled esthetics) is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty and taste, which in a broad sense incorporates the philosophy of art.Slater, B. H.Aesthetics ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,'' , acces ...
plays an important role, for it pioneers intercultural thinking.


Ram Adhar Mall

Mall (born 1937) is a professor of philosophy and teaches intercultural philosophy and
hermeneutics Hermeneutics () is the theory and methodology of interpretation, especially the interpretation of biblical texts, wisdom literature, and philosophical texts. As necessary, hermeneutics may include the art of understanding and communication. ...
at the
University of Munich The Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (simply University of Munich, LMU or LMU Munich; ) is a public university, public research university in Munich, Bavaria, Germany. Originally established as the University of Ingolstadt in 1472 by Duke ...
. He has systematically worked through Indian philosophy and
sociology Sociology is the scientific study of human society that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of Interpersonal ties, social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. The term sociol ...
, and views himself as an "insider" as well as an "outsider", due to his Indian heritage and Western education. For Mall interculturality derives from the overlapping of cultures that do not exist on their own. Intercultural philosophy is by no means a romantic notion for anything non-European but an attitude which has to precede philosophical thinking. Only then
comparative philosophy Global or intercultural philosophy is an approach to philosophy which emphasizes the integration of influences from different cultures. It can represent the meeting of different philosophical traditions, such as Western philosophy, Asian philosophy ...
becomes possible. Mall has worked out a hermeneutic he calls 'analogous', which moves between two hermeneutic extremes, namely radical
difference Difference commonly refers to: * Difference (philosophy), the set of properties by which items are distinguished * Difference (mathematics), the result of a subtraction Difference, The Difference, Differences or Differently may also refer to: Mu ...
and total identity. Working out overlappings despite differences enables to understand other cultures not identical to one's own. Mall pleads for abandonment of any claim to absolute right in theory as well as practice.


Franz Martin Wimmer

Wimmer (born 1942) is an associate professor at the
University of Vienna The University of Vienna (, ) is a public university, public research university in Vienna, Austria. Founded by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, Duke Rudolph IV in 1365, it is the oldest university in the German-speaking world and among the largest ...
. It is important to him to liberate the concept of philosophy from eurocentrism. He defines the contents of philosophy regarding to questions asked. Any tradition concerning themselves with either
logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure o ...
,
ontology Ontology is the philosophical study of existence, being. It is traditionally understood as the subdiscipline of metaphysics focused on the most general features of reality. As one of the most fundamental concepts, being encompasses all of realit ...
,
epistemology Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also called "the theory of knowledge", it explores different types of knowledge, such as propositional knowledge about facts, practical knowle ...
or the justification of norms and values is indeed philosophical. Philosophy should be intercultural all the time even though it isn't yet so. It is quite a 'predicament of culturality' that philosophy claims to be universal but on the other hand will always be embedded in culture, certain means of expression and certain questions. Wimmer concerns himself with the history of philosophical thought which has to be rewritten in order to include other traditions beside the occidental. He also wants to develop ways to enable intercultural dialogues, or 'polylogues', as he calls them.


Peter Raine

In ''Who guards the guardians: intercultural dialogue on environmental guardianship'', Raine works through stages of intercultural guardianship for the purpose of discussing guardianship of nature. There are many approaches that are not based on scientific rationality which need to be heard in the 21st century. How do we talk with, and understand, radically different experiences of reality from our own. The approach is not only intercultural, but also philosophical and theological.


Approaches to an intercultural dialogue

When working with different cultures one can't just insist of one's own methods and ask everyone else to do so as well.
Communications Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether Intention, unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not onl ...
have to be adapted to this new situation. Many philosophers of intercultural thought suggest similar but nonetheless different rules or guidelines when approaching other traditions.


Polylogue

This is a concept of the Austrian philosopher Franz Martin Wimmer. He postulates that within interculturally orientated philosophy methods have to be found which disable any rash universalism or relativistic particularism. When making other voices heard, so to speak, not only should be asked what they say and why but also with what justification and due to what believes and convictions. Between radicalism and universalism there has to be a third way to carry out the program of philosophy with the help of other cultures. Wimmer calls this way polylogue, a dialogue of many. Answers to thematic questions should be worked out during such a polylogue. He drafts a 'minimal rule': never accept a philosophical thesis from an author of a single cultural tradition to be well founded. But how does a polylogue look like? Wimmer assumes an issue relevant in four traditions (A, B, C and D) for the sake of illustration. The can have one-sided influence (→) or reciprocal influence (↔). There are different models to be distinguished: One-sided influence A → B and A → C and A → D In this model there is no dialogue possible. It is the goal the expansion of tradition A together with the extinction of cultures such as B, C and D. The reaction of those doesn't have to be the same. The may fiercely object or completely imitate tradition A. This is an example for eurocentrism. One-sided and transitive influence A → B and A → C and A → D and B → C In this model dialogues aren't necessary as well. A continues to be the most influential culture, B ignores D, C ignores D. It may be due to the twofold influence upon C that comparative notions occur. 12 Partly reciprocal influence There are many forms such as: A ↔ B and A → C and A → D or: A ↔ B and A → C and A → D and B → C up to: A ↔ B and A ↔ C and A ↔ D and B ↔ C and B ↔ D and C → D All forms here can be seen as selective
acculturation Acculturation refers to the psychological, social, and cultural transformation that takes place through direct contact between two cultures, wherein one or both engage in adapting to dominant cultural influences without compromising their essent ...
. There are some dialogues or even polylogues possible, with the exception of D. Complete reciprocal influence: the polylogue A ↔ B and A ↔ C and A ↔ D and B ↔ C and B ↔ D and C ↔ D For each tradition is the other quite interesting which is the consistent model for intercultural philosophy. Reciprocal influence happens based on complete equality. Of course in when it comes to practical use it might not be as carefully balanced. One tradition may be more interested in the second than the third which is a common difficulty regarding intercultural dialogue in general.


Rules of thumb

Elmar Holenstein (born 1937) is a Swiss philosopher who concerns himself with questions regarding phenomenology and philosophy of language and culture. He observes a number of rules of thumb that make it possible to avoid intercultural misunderstandings for the most part.Holenstein, Elmar (2003)
A Dozen Rules of Thumb for Avoiding Intercultural Misunderstandings
(D. Goodwin, Trans.) online at ''polylog: platform for Intercultural Philosophy.'' Retrieved 2010-09-07
Rule of logical rationality – One has to assume that thoughts not logical to oneself do not make the culture or tradition alogical or prelogical but rather that one has misunderstood them. Rule of teleological rationality (functionality rule) – People pursue an end in what they do and don't only express themselves with logical rationality. It is easy to misunderstand if one cannot distinguish logical and
teleological Teleology (from , and )Partridge, Eric. 1977''Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English'' London: Routledge, p. 4187. or finalityDubray, Charles. 2020
912 Year 912 ( CMXII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. __NOTOC__ Events By place Byzantine Empire * May 11 – Emperor Leo VI (the Wise) dies after a 26-year reign, in which he has completed the Byzantine c ...
Teleology. In ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' 14. New York: Robert Applet ...
rationality, the literal meaning of a sentence and the goal pursued with it. Humanity rule (naturalness rule) – Before meaningless, unnatural, non-human or immature behaviour and corresponding values are attributed to people of another culture, it is better to begin by doubting the adequacy of one's own judgement and knowledge. Nos-quoque rule (we-do-it-too-rule) – If one encounters something in a foreign culture which one is completely unwilling to accept without contradiction, it is not unlikely that one will find comparable, if not worse occurrences in one's own culture, historical and contemporary. Vos-quoque rule (you-do-it-too-rule) – Considering the former rule, it is no less probable that one will find persons in the foreign culture who reject the scandalous event as well. Anti-crypto-racism rule – When people are frustrated, they are inclined to perceive their own shortcomings in magnified form in members of other groups. Crypto-
racism Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also me ...
, hidden racism, becomes manifest when one's own feeling of superiority is threatened. Foreign cultures have to be analysed to shed a revealing light on one's own culture. Personality rule – It is possible to avoid misjudgements and tactlessness by never treating members of another culture as objects or means of research, but as research partners of equal right. Subjectivity rule – A self-image is no more to be taken at face value than are the impressions of an outsider. According to their constitution and the kind of encounter, people tend to overestimate, super-elevate and embellish themselves, or to underestimate, diminish and denigrate themselves. Ontology-deontology rule (›is‹ versus ›ought‹ rule) – Behaviour codes and constitutional texts do not represent conditions as they are, but as they should be according to the view of the group that have the say. Sometimes they manifest a mirror image of what is not the case but considered proper behaviour. Depolarization rule (rule against cultural dualism) – Polarisation is an elementary means of reducing complexity and classifying things. Its primary function is not to render things as they in fact are, but rather to represent them in a manner in which they are useful. Polarisations with their simplification, exaggeration, absolutism, and exclusivity are best prevented by comparing several cultures with each other, instead of restricting the comparison to two, and by paying attention to the circumstances under which such a polar relationship between two cultures can be maintained and under what conditions it can also be detected within the cultures that are contrasted with each other. Non-homogeneity rule – The assumption that cultures are
homogeneous Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, i ...
is a temptation to place the various eras, trends and formations to be found in them in a uni-linear order as if they are only distinguished by their degree of development and none of them has its own originality and autonomy. Agnosticism rule – There are mysteries that will remain unanswered in all cultures and across cultures. One has to be prepared for the fact that satisfactory answers might not be found.


Gregor Paul's basic rules for intercultural philosophy

Paul is an associate professor at the
University of Karlsruhe The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT; ) is both a German public university, public research university in Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg, and a research center of the Helmholtz Association. KIT was created in 2009 when the University of Ka ...
. His concerns are epistemology, logic,
aesthetics Aesthetics (also spelled esthetics) is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty and taste (sociology), taste, which in a broad sense incorporates the philosophy of art.Slater, B. H.Aesthetics ''Internet Encyclopedia of Ph ...
and comparative philosophy as well as human rights. He has formulated 16
methodological In its most common sense, methodology is the study of research methods. However, the term can also refer to the methods themselves or to the philosophical discussion of associated background assumptions. A method is a structured procedure for bri ...
rules Paul, Gregor (2008). ''Einführung in die Interkulturelle Philosophie.'' Darmstadt: WBG. regarding intercultural philosophy. # Ascertain similarities and make them explicit # Identify differences, and to describe and explain them # Dispel prejudices # Avoid mystification and exoticism # Assume the existence of universal, logical laws # To only compare equalities and to avert category mistakes # Avoid generalisations # Not to mistake parts of a tradition for the whole (e.g. identify
Zen Zen (; from Chinese: ''Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka phil ...
as the Eastern philosophy) Rules regarding comparative philosophy: # Accept the universal validity of the common and pragmatic principle of causality as at least
heuristic A heuristic or heuristic technique (''problem solving'', '' mental shortcut'', ''rule of thumb'') is any approach to problem solving that employs a pragmatic method that is not fully optimized, perfected, or rationalized, but is nevertheless ...
and pragmatic principle # Orient oneself on the existence of
anthropological Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including archaic humans. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour, wh ...
constants # To justify the identification of certain issues regarding to similarities and differences, in particular regarding the relevance of those identifications Comparative philosophy should furthermore meet certain demands: # To explicit the underlying and guiding concept of philosophy # Avoid
ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism in social science and anthropology—as well as in colloquial English discourse—means to apply one's own culture or ethnicity as a frame of reference to judge other cultures, practices, behaviors, beliefs, and people, instead o ...
and eurocentrism # To use terms such as 'German philosophy' and 'East' and 'West' just as abbreviation for 'philosophy formulated or developed in Germany' and 'philosophy formulated and developed in Asia' Further common rules: #
Multidisciplinarity An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, a ...
and # Contextualisation of important examples. These 16 rules shall help to enable an exchange between cultures on an equal level.


Intercultural media

Beside the work of individual philosophers journals have been published to spread the intercultural thought and make as many voices heard as possible. ''Polylog'' is a journal for intercultural philosophising, published in
Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
, Austria, since 1998 and offers articles mostly in the German language. ''Simplegadi'' is also a journal for intercultural philosophy, published in Padua, Italy since 1996. The journal's language is Italian. Since 2010, the Centro Interculturale Dedicato a Raimon Panikkar (Intercultural Centre Dedicated to Raimon Panikkar) publishes ''Cirpit Review'' in print or in digital format, promoting and spreading cultural events inspired by Raimon Panikkar's thought.


See also

*
Interculturalism Interculturalism is a political movement that supports cross-cultural dialogue and challenging self-segregation tendencies within cultures.John Nagle, Multiculturalism's Double-Bind: Creating Inclusivity Cosmopolitanism and Difference. Ashgate Pu ...
*
Intercultural communication Intercultural communication is a discipline that studies communication across different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication. It describes the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally appear w ...
*
Perennial philosophy The perennial philosophy (), also referred to as perennialism and perennial wisdom, is a school of thought in philosophy and spirituality that posits that the recurrence of common themes across world religions illuminates universal truths about ...
;Traditions *
African philosophy African philosophy is the philosophical discourse produced using indigenous African thought systems. :African philosophers, African philosophers are found in the various academic fields of present philosophy, such as metaphysics, epistemology, E ...
*
American philosophy American philosophy is the activity, corpus, and tradition of philosophers affiliated with the United States. The ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' notes that while it lacks a "core of defining features, American Philosophy can neverthe ...
*
Eastern philosophy Eastern philosophy (also called Asian philosophy or Oriental philosophy) includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South Asia, including Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, and Vietnamese philoso ...
*
Middle Eastern philosophy Middle Eastern philosophy includes the various philosophies of the Middle East regions, including the Fertile Crescent and Iran. Traditions include Ancient Egyptian philosophy, Babylonian philosophy, Christian philosophy, Jewish philosophy, ...
*
Western philosophy Western philosophy refers to the Philosophy, philosophical thought, traditions and works of the Western world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of Western culture, beginning with the ancient Greek philosophy of the Pre ...


Notes


References

* William Edelglass and
Jay L. Garfield Jay Lazar Garfield (born 13 November 1955) is an American professor of philosophy who specializes in Tibetan Buddhism. He also specializes on the philosophy of mind, cognitive science, epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy of language, ethics, and ...
(eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy'' (Oxford:
OUP Oxford University Press (OUP) is the publishing house of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world. Its first book was printed in Oxford in 1478, with the Press officially granted the legal right to print books ...
, 2011). * Ronnie Littlejohn
"Comparative Philosophy"
''
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (''IEP'') is a scholarly online encyclopedia with around 900 articles about philosophy, philosophers, and related topics. The IEP publishes only peer review, peer-reviewed and blind-refereed original p ...
''. * David Wong
"Comparative Philosophy: Chinese and Western"
''
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy The ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (''SEP'') is a freely available online philosophy resource published and maintained by Stanford University, encompassing both an online encyclopedia of philosophy and peer-reviewed original publication ...
''.


External links


WiGiP - Viennese society for intercultural philosophy

Metis portal for intercultural wisdom literature and wisdom practices
at
ETH Zurich ETH Zurich (; ) is a public university in Zurich, Switzerland. Founded in 1854 with the stated mission to educate engineers and scientists, the university focuses primarily on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. ETH Zurich ran ...
.
polylog – Zeitschrift für interkulturelles Philosophieren



ODIP - Online Dictionary of Intercultural Philosophy


{{Authority control Philosophical methodology Philosophy by topic Interculturalism