The input–process–output (IPO) model of teams provides a framework for conceptualizing teams.
The IPO model suggests that many factors influence a team's
productivity
Productivity is the efficiency of production of goods or services expressed by some measure. Measurements of productivity are often expressed as a ratio of an aggregate output to a single input or an aggregate input used in a production proces ...
and
cohesiveness
Group cohesiveness (also called group cohesion and social cohesion) arises when bonds link members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole. Although cohesion is a multi-faceted process, it can be broken down into four main co ...
. It "provides a way to understand how teams perform, and how to maximize their performance".
The IPO model of teams is a
systems theory, as it rests on the assumption that a team is more than one-to-one relationships between variables, and more than the sum of its members. It suggests that there are
interactions
Interaction is action that occurs between two or more objects, with broad use in philosophy and the sciences. It may refer to:
Science
* Interaction hypothesis, a theory of second language acquisition
* Interaction (statistics)
* Interactions o ...
and feedback between many contributing factors.
Inputs are the conditions that exist prior to group activity, whereas processes are the interactions among group members. Outputs are the results of group activity that are valued by the team or the organization.
Inputs
Inputs include any antecedent factors such as organizational context, task characteristics, and team composition
that may influence the team itself, directly or indirectly.
As written by Forsyth (2010), inputs can include individual-level factors, team-level factors, and environmental-level factors.
* Individual-level factors: team members’
personality traits
In psychology, trait theory (also called dispositional theory) is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of ''traits'', which can be defined as habitual patterns of behaviour, tho ...
, strengths, weaknesses,
preferences
In psychology, economics and philosophy, preference is a technical term usually used in relation to choosing between alternatives. For example, someone prefers A over B if they would rather choose A than B. Preferences are central to decision theo ...
, dislikes
* Team-level factors: the resources the team has access to, how large the team is, how much time the team spends together, how close the team members are
* Environmental factors: how the team works with other teams, whether the team is part of an organization
Processes
Processes are operations and activities that mediate the relationship between the input factors and the team's outcomes.
Processes include
group norms, as well as a group’s
decision making process, level of communication, coordination, and cohesion.
Specifically, processes can be things such as:
* Steps taken to plan activities
* Initiating actions
* Monitoring resources
* Monitoring progress
* Maintenance of
interpersonal relationships
The concept of interpersonal relationship involves social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more people. Interpersonal relationships vary in their degree of intimacy or self-disclosure, but also in their duration, in t ...
* Dealing with
conflict
Conflict may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
* ''Conflict'' (1921 film), an American silent film directed by Stuart Paton
* ''Conflict'' (1936 film), an American boxing film starring John Wayne
* ''Conflict'' (1937 film) ...
* Members' sense of commitment to the team
Outputs
Outputs are the consequences of the team's actions or activities. Most often this refers to the team's tangible
output
Output may refer to:
* The information produced by a computer, see Input/output
* An output state of a system, see state (computer science)
* Output (economics), the amount of goods and services produced
** Gross output in economics, the value of ...
– what they made, achieved, or accomplished.
Whether the team wins or loses, whether their product is of adequate quality, and whether they were successful in completing their goals efficiently are all questions of tangible outcome.
Other outcomes are also important, such as changes in the team's cohesiveness, the degree to which the team learns to be prepared for future tasks, the uniqueness of the team’s solution, and whether it increases in efficiency through practice.
Team outputs were also categorized as productivity/performance, member satisfaction, and innovation by Landy & Conte (2009).
Limitations
Although the IPO model of teams has proven to be useful, it is important to consider the limitations of this model as well. Forsyth (2010) outlined three limitations of the IPO model:
* The IPO model is too