Inclusivism is one of several approaches in

religious studies Religious studies, also known as religiology or the study of religion, is the study of religion from a historical or scientific perspective. There is no consensus on what qualifies as ''religion'' and definition of religion, its definition is h ...

anthropology Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, society, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including archaic humans. Social anthropology studies patterns of behav ...

, or

civics In the field of political science, civics is the study of the civil and political rights and obligations of citizens in a society. The term ''civics'' derives from the Latin word ''civicus'', meaning "relating to a citizen". In U.S. politics ...

to understand the relationship between different

religion Religion is a range of social system, social-cultural systems, including designated religious behaviour, behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, religious text, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics in religion, ethics, or ...

societies A society () is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. ...

cultures Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, Attitude (psychology), attitudes ...

political faction A political faction is a group of people with a common political purpose, especially a subgroup of a political party that has interests or opinions different from the rest of the political party. Intragroup conflict between factions can lead to ...

s etc. It asserts that there is beauty in the variety of different schools of thoughts, and that they can coexist. It stands in contrast to

exclusivism Exclusivism is the practice of being :wikt:exclusive, exclusive, a mentality characterized by the disregard for opinions and ideas which are different from one's own, or the practice of organizing entities into groups by excluding those entities wh ...

, which asserts that only one way is true and all others are erroneous. Within religious studies and

theology Theology is the study of religious belief from a Religion, religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an Discipline (academia), academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itse ...

, inclusivism is the belief that, although only one belief system is true, aspects of its truth can be found in other religions. This is contrasted from

religious pluralism Religious pluralism is an attitude or policy regarding the diversity of religion, religious belief systems co-existing in society. It can indicate one or more of the following: * Recognizing and Religious tolerance, tolerating the religio ...

, which asserts that all beliefs are equally valid within a believer's particular context. Broadly speaking, there are two schools of Inclusivist thought: * Relativistic inclusivism, which asserts that the believer's own views are true only in their particular context, and believers of other traditions have their own validity. * Absolutist inclusivism, which asserts that an unknown set of assertions are Absolutely True, that no human being currently living has yet ascertained absolute truth, but that all human beings have partially ascertained absolute truth.

By religion

Ancient Greece

Interpretatio graeca , or "interpretation by means of Greek odels, refers to the tendency of the ancient Greeks to identify foreign deities with their own gods. It is a discourse used to interpret or attempt to understand the mythology and religion of other cult ...

was the tendency of ancient Greek writers to equate foreign divinities to members of their own pantheon.

Herodotus Herodotus (; BC) was a Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus (now Bodrum, Turkey), under Persian control in the 5th century BC, and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria, Italy. He wrote the '' Histori ...

, for example, refers to the ancient Egyptian gods

Amon Amon may refer to: Mythology * Amun, an Ancient Egyptian deity, also known as Amon and Amon-Ra * Aamon, a Goetic demon People Mononym * Amon of Judah ( 664– 640 BC), king of Judah * Amon of Toul ( 375– 423 AD), second recorded Bishop of ...

Osiris Osiris (, from Egyptian ''wikt:wsjr, wsjr'') was the ancient Egyptian deities, god of fertility, agriculture, the Ancient Egyptian religion#Afterlife, afterlife, the dead, resurrection, life, and vegetation in ancient Egyptian religion. He was ...

, and Ptah as "

Zeus Zeus (, ) is the chief deity of the List of Greek deities, Greek pantheon. He is a sky father, sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, who rules as king of the gods on Mount Olympus. Zeus is the child ...

," "

Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, myth, Dionysus (; ) is the god of wine-making, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, festivity, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, and theatre. He was also known as Bacchus ( or ; ...

," and "

Hephaestus Hephaestus ( , ; wikt:Hephaestus#Alternative forms, eight spellings; ) is the Greek god of artisans, blacksmiths, carpenters, craftsmen, fire, metallurgy, metalworking, sculpture and volcanoes.Walter Burkert, ''Greek Religion'' 1985: III.2. ...

," respectively. This could be seen as an example of inclusivism as well as

syncretism Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various school of thought, schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or religious assimilation, assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the ...

Syncretism Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various school of thought, schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or religious assimilation, assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the ...

functioned as an essential feature of Ancient Greek religion. Later on, Hellenism, a consequence of

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...

's belief that he was the son of a god, reinforced by the

Oracle of Zeus-Ammon Amun was a major ancient Egyptian deity who appears as a member of the Hermopolitan Ogdoad. Amun was attested from the Old Kingdom together with his wife Amunet. His oracle in Siwa Oasis, located in Western Egypt near the Libyan Desert, rem ...

at Siwa in Egypt, itself showed syncretic features, essentially blending Persian, Anatolian, Egyptian (and eventually Etruscan-Roman) elements within Hellenic formulations. After the

Hellenization Hellenization or Hellenification is the adoption of Greek culture, religion, language, and identity by non-Greeks. In the ancient period, colonisation often led to the Hellenisation of indigenous people in the Hellenistic period, many of the ...

of the Egyptian culture initiated by

Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy I Soter (; , ''Ptolemaîos Sōtḗr'', "Ptolemy the Savior"; 367 BC – January 282 BC) was a Macedonian Greek general, historian, and successor of Alexander the Great who went on to found the Ptolemaic Kingdom centered on Egypt. Pto ...

Isis Isis was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kingdom () as one of the main characters of the Osiris myth, in which she resurrects her sla ...

became known as "

Queen of Heaven Queen of Heaven () is a title given by the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy, to Mary, mother of Jesus, and, to a lesser extent, in Anglicanism and Lutheranism. The title has long been a tradition, included in prayers and devotional literat ...

" and was worshipped in many aspects and by many names besides that of

Hera In ancient Greek religion, Hera (; ; in Ionic Greek, Ionic and Homeric Greek) is the goddess of marriage, women, and family, and the protector of women during childbirth. In Greek mythology, she is queen of the twelve Olympians and Mount Oly ...

Hinduism

A well-known hymn in the

Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...

Rigveda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' (, , from wikt:ऋच्, ऋच्, "praise" and wikt:वेद, वेद, "knowledge") is an ancient Indian Miscellany, collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canoni ...

claims that "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously", proclaiming a pluralistic view of religion.

Krishna Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...

, an

Avatar Avatar (, ; ) is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means . It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearance" is sometimes u ...

Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...

, the supreme deity in

Vaishnavism Vaishnavism () ), also called Vishnuism, is one of the major Hindu denominations, Hindu traditions, that considers Vishnu as the sole Para Brahman, supreme being leading all other Hindu deities, that is, ''Mahavishnu''. It is one of the majo ...

, said in the

Gita The Bhagavad Gita (; ), often referred to as the Gita (), is a Hindu scripture, dated to the second or first century BCE, which forms part of the epic poem Mahabharata. The Gita is a synthesis of various strands of Indian religious thought, ...

, "In whatever way men identify with Me, in the same way do I carry out their desires; men pursue My path... in all ways" (Gita 4:11). He also said that "Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me" (Gita 7:21–22). Another quote in the Gita states: "O

Arjuna Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...

, even those devotees who worship other lesser deities (e.g., Devas, for example) with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva,

Yajna In Hinduism, ''Yajna'' or ''Yagna'' (, Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐd͡ʒɲə ) also known as Hawan, is a ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras. Yajna has been a Vedas, Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature ...

) and Lord of the universe" (Gita 9:23).

Christianity

Inclusive Christianity, also called inclusive theology, is an interpretation of the Bible that maintains that God desires and has the power to save individuals irrespective of the tradition in which they are born. Some Christian supporters of the inclusive view make a distinction between Christians and believers in maintaining that all Christians are believers. However, not all believers are Christians. In this line of thought, Christians are believers in the universal truth and follow and confess it under the biblical name "Jesus Christ". At the same time, they argue, some non-Christian believers of other religions, traditions, and disciplines would partially trust in the same one and only truth but under a different

linguistic Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), Morphology (linguistics), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds ...

name. Inclusive Christians support these claims by citing certain passages from the Bible.Richard Rohr OFM: ''The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe''. In: ''A Universal and Personal God, page 24 (eBook-Format)'' Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, Gavin D’Costa: ''Theology and Religious Pluralism: The Challenge of Other Religions''. page 80 ''New York, Basil Blackwell'', published in 1986, Inclusive theology is rooted in a wider movement called " interfaith" that aims to create unity among various religions. The inclusive interpretation is a minority view in some churches but is considered an official theological doctrine in others. Christian supporters of inclusivism include Augustus Hopkins Strong,

C. S. Lewis Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer, literary scholar and Anglican lay theologian. He held academic positions in English literature at both Magdalen College, Oxford (1925–1954), and Magdalen ...

, Clark Pinnock,

Karl Rahner Karl Rahner (5 March 1904 – 30 March 1984) was a German Jesuits, Jesuit priest and theologian who, alongside Henri de Lubac, Hans Urs von Balthasar, and Yves Congar, is considered to be one of the most influential Catholic theology, Cat ...

, John E. Sanders, Terrance L. Tiessen, and Robert Brush (contributor to ''The

Arminian Arminianism is a movement of Protestantism initiated in the early 17th century, based on the Christian theology, theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed Church, Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius and his historic supporters known as Remo ...

Magazine''). While

Billy Graham William Franklin Graham Jr. (; November 7, 1918 – February 21, 2018) was an American Evangelism, evangelist, ordained Southern Baptist minister, and Civil rights movement, civil rights advocate, whose broadcasts and world tours featuring liv ...

mostly preached "salvation by faith in Christ alone" throughout his 60-year ministry as an evangelist, he later made controversial comments that bordered on inclusivism. He stated that he did not like to refer to it by that term because he was concerned that many people mean

universalism Universalism is the philosophical and theological concept within Christianity that some ideas have universal application or applicability. A belief in one fundamental truth is another important tenet in universalism. The living truth is se ...

when they refer to inclusivism. Graham said, "I used to play God but I can’t do that any more. I used to believe that pagans in far-off countries were lost and were going to

Hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location or state in the afterlife in which souls are subjected to punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history sometimes depict hells as eternal destinations, such as Christianity and I ...

—if they did not have the Gospel of Jesus Christ preached to them. I no longer believe that," he said carefully. "I believe that there are other ways of recognizing the existence of God—through nature, for instance—and plenty of other opportunities, therefore, of saying ’yes’ to God." Some

Evangelical Evangelicalism (), also called evangelical Christianity or evangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide, interdenominational movement within Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that emphasizes evangelism, or the preaching and spreading of th ...

and Reformed Protestant scholars believe that God judges all people based on their response to the

Holy Spirit The Holy Spirit, otherwise known as the Holy Ghost, is a concept within the Abrahamic religions. In Judaism, the Holy Spirit is understood as the divine quality or force of God manifesting in the world, particularly in acts of prophecy, creati ...

, citing Romans 2:14–15 as evidence that those following a natural moral law are still following God.Davies, W. D.; Allison, Dale C.: ''A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew''. In: ''Vol. 3. T&T Clark'' published in: ''1997 and 2004'' Some interpret this text more inclusively, suggesting that non-Christians also inherently possess a part of God's wisdom in their hearts as an integral aspect of who they are. They interpret Genesis 20:9–11 and

1 Corinthians The First Epistle to the Corinthians () is one of the Pauline epistles, part of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-author, Sosthenes, and is addressed to the Christian church in Anc ...

5:1 to illustrate that there are non-Christians or non-Jews who, guided by their inherent understanding of God's law, may lead lives that are more pleasing to God than those of some Jews and Christians.Dr. J. V. Fesko: ''Die Schöpfung bezeugt den Schöpfer: Die klassisch-reformierte Theologie und die Verteidigung des Glaubens''. In: ''evangelium21.net'' 81375 Munich GER., first published in: ''Tabletalk Magazin Edition July 2019'' Ligonier Ministries. By Romans 1:19–20, inclusive Christians often argue that this description would imply that God—in parts—can be recognized by any human being, no matter their religion or cultural background, as well as independent from its geographic and/or its chronologic whereabouts. This would also include the domain of modern science as it studies the universe, as implied in Psalm 19:2–5.Peter C. Hägele: In: ''Naturwissenschaftler reden von Gott'' chapter ''Menschen, Makromoleküle und Modelle'', page 4 (eBook-Format), 2016, author Hrsg. Barbara Drossel, Brunnen Verlag Giessen GER., Other verses cited as supporting inclusivism include Acts 17:23–28, wherein Paul says that the (pagan) Greeks had been worshiping God without knowing it and that their poets have partially recognized the true nature of God.Peter C. Bouteneff: In: ''The future of Interreligious Dialogue: A Multireligious Conversation on Nostra Aetate'' chapter 8 ''Nostra Aetate: Views from a sibling on inclusivism and pluralism'', page 145, 2017, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York 10545, Inclusive Christians from various denominations argue that Colossians 1:16 suggests the universe, in its creatureliness, is part of God's being and integral to the eternal reality of the Christ.Richard Rohr OFM: ''The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe''. In: ''A Universal and Personal God, pages 20-22 (eBook-Format)'' Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, Another Christian Biblical proof text inclusive believers use is Acts 10:1–48, which would state that whoever fears God and does good works is accepted by him, regardless of nation. In addition, the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats ( Matthew 25:31–46) portrays the judgment of the nations as being based on each individual's compassion toward others, not on their religious background. It is often argued that the connection between the biblical verses in Genesis 2:7 and Genesis 7:21-22 serves as strong evidence that every living organism contains essential elements of the living God within itself, specifically through the breath of God.Dana M. Pike: ''The Latter-day Saint Reimaging of “the Breath of Life” (Genesis 2:7) - The Breath of Life” in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament''. In: https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/the-latter-day-saint-reimaging-of-the-breath-of-life-genesis-27/, last checked 07.27.2023 Inclusive interpretations of the Christian Bible, as understood by many inclusive Christians, suggest that God can be experienced in other religions and disciplines, such as science. However, these interpretations typically emphasize that to experience a deep and intimate relationship with God, connecting with the person of Jesus and acknowledging the reality of the ''

Logos ''Logos'' (, ; ) is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric, as well as religion (notably Logos (Christianity), Christianity); among its connotations is that of a rationality, rational form of discourse that relies on inducti ...

'' is essential. Furthermore, they assert that a complete relationship with God involves recognizing Jesus's and God's inclusive and universal nature. This encompasses a personal relationship with Jesus and an understanding of the broader, inclusive concept of divinity.Richard Rohr OFM: ''The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe''. In: ''A Universal and Personal God, pages 22-23 (eBook-Format)'' Durnell Wiley first published in 2019, The doctrine of inclusivism is held by Unitarian Universalism, a

liberal religion Religious liberalism is a conception of religion (or of a particular religion) which emphasizes personal and group liberty and rationality. It is an attitude towards one's own religion (as opposed to criticism of religion from a secular position ...

with Christian origins, some

Roman Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...

s and

Seventh-day Adventist The Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) is an Adventist Protestant Christian denomination which is distinguished by its observance of Saturday, the seventh day of the week in the Christian (Gregorian) and the Hebrew calendar, as the Sabbat ...

s, asserting that while Christianity is the "one true faith", other faiths are at least partially true. An alternative use for the term "inclusive theology" has to do with a movement called

feminist theology Feminist theology is a movement found in several religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Sikhism, Jainism, Neopaganism, Baháʼí Faith, Judaism, Islam, Christianity, and New Thought, to reconsider the traditions, practices, scri ...

, which aims to include more women in religious

clergy Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...

roles that have been historically unavailable to women. From an inclusive theological perspective, it is believed that a faith community can nurture the development of corresponding religious, spiritual, ecclesiastical, and interdisciplinary institutions. Examples of this are the

Pontifical Academy of Sciences The Pontifical Academy of Sciences (, ) is a Academy of sciences, scientific academy of the Vatican City, established in 1936 by Pope Pius XI. Its aim is to promote the progress of the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences and the study ...

, the Pontifical Council for Culture, or the Dicastery for Interreligious Dialogue. In all Catholic Church institutions, relationships with other disciplines and religions are nurtured due to the Bible's fundamental inclusivist theological understanding.The Holy Se
''Statement by Card. Tarcisio Bertone Secretary Of State''
last retrieved December 2023, First published September 2006.

Baháʼí Faith

Shoghi Effendi Shoghí Effendi (; ;1896 or 1897 – 4 November 1957) was Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith from 1922 until his death in 1957. As the grandson and successor of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was charged with guiding the development of the Baháʼí Faith, in ...

, the head of the

Baháʼí Faith The Baháʼí Faith is a religion founded in the 19th century that teaches the Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion, essential worth of all religions and Baháʼí Faith and the unity of humanity, the unity of all people. Established by ...

in the first half of the 20th century, stated:

Notes

References

{{christian theology Religious pluralism Theology Christian theology Interfaith dialogue Philosophy of religion