The Inca Civil War, also known as the Inca Dynastic War, the Inca War of Succession, or, sometimes, the War of the Two Brothers, was fought between half-brothers
Huáscar and
Atahualpa
Atahualpa (), also Atawallpa or Ataw Wallpa ( Quechua) ( 150226 July 1533), was the last effective Inca emperor, reigning from April 1532 until his capture and execution in July of the following year, as part of the Spanish conquest of the In ...
, sons of
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac (; Cuzco Quechua: ''Wayna Qhapaq'' ) (before 14931527) was the third Sapa Inca of Tawantinsuyu, the Inca Empire. He was the son of and successor to Túpac Inca Yupanqui,Sarmiento de Gamboa, Pedro; 2015, originally published in Sp ...
, over
succession
Succession is the act or process of following in order or sequence.
Governance and politics
*Order of succession, in politics, the ascension to power by one ruler, official, or monarch after the death, resignation, or removal from office of ...
to the throne of the
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, officially known as the Realm of the Four Parts (, ), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco. The History of the Incas, Inca ...
.
[Prescott, W.H., 1827, ''The History of the Conquest of Peru,'' Digireads.com Publishing, ][Hemming, ''The Conquest'', p. 29.] The war followed Huayna Capac's death.
It began in 1529, and lasted until 1532. Huáscar initiated the war; appointed as emperor and claiming the throne, he wanted to defeat Atahualpa's competition. Atahualpa was tactically superior to his brother in warcraft and to the mighty armies of
Cusco
Cusco or Cuzco (; or , ) is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Sacred Valley of the Andes mountain range and the Huatanay river. It is the capital of the eponymous Cusco Province, province and Cusco Region, department.
The city was the cap ...
, which their father had stationed in the north part of the empire during the military campaign.
[MacQuarrie, ''The Last Days'', p. 50.] Accounts from sources all vary in the exact details. Following Atahualpa's victory, Spanish forces led by
Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro, Marquess of the Atabillos (; ; – 26 June 1541) was a Spanish ''conquistador'', best known for his expeditions that led to the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.
Born in Trujillo, Cáceres, Trujillo, Spain, to a poor fam ...
invaded this region. He ultimately captured and killed Atahualpa, after receiving a
ransom
Ransom refers to the practice of holding a prisoner or item to extort money or property to secure their release. It also refers to the sum of money paid by the other party to secure a captive's freedom.
When ransom means "payment", the word ...
that was purportedly to free him.
Causes of the division of the empire

In 1524–1526, the Spaniards, under the command of
Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro, Marquess of the Atabillos (; ; – 26 June 1541) was a Spanish ''conquistador'', best known for his expeditions that led to the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.
Born in Trujillo, Cáceres, Trujillo, Spain, to a poor fam ...
, explored the northwestern coast of South America.
[Davies, ''The Incas'', p.186] They are believed to have carried
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by Variola virus (often called Smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus '' Orthopoxvirus''. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (W ...
,
measles
Measles (probably from Middle Dutch or Middle High German ''masel(e)'', meaning "blemish, blood blister") is a highly contagious, Vaccine-preventable diseases, vaccine-preventable infectious disease caused by Measles morbillivirus, measles v ...
, or
influenza
Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses. Symptoms range from mild to severe and often include fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pain, headache, coughing, and fatigue. These sympto ...
to the continent, as these had been
endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...
among Europeans for centuries.
The new infectious diseases erupted in epidemics and caused high mortality and disaster for the Inca and other indigenous peoples, who had no immunity. The outbreak of the disease that is believed to be smallpox killed the most people in the first years of the Civil War.
Atahualpa
Atahualpa (), also Atawallpa or Ataw Wallpa ( Quechua) ( 150226 July 1533), was the last effective Inca emperor, reigning from April 1532 until his capture and execution in July of the following year, as part of the Spanish conquest of the In ...
was a son of
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac (; Cuzco Quechua: ''Wayna Qhapaq'' ) (before 14931527) was the third Sapa Inca of Tawantinsuyu, the Inca Empire. He was the son of and successor to Túpac Inca Yupanqui,Sarmiento de Gamboa, Pedro; 2015, originally published in Sp ...
. Atahualpa accompanied his father on every military expedition in the north. Huayna Capac used these expeditions to test his son's military capabilities. He sent Atahualpa on a military expedition to conquer the Pasto people. However, Atahualpa fled and received harsh treatment upon his return.
[Davies, ''The Incas'', p.186]
Huayna Capac, who was in Tumebamba, heard news of the strangers arriving at Tumbes. Although he did not personally encounter any Spaniards, he contracted smallpox and died in 1527. He named Ninan Cuyochi as his successor. A group of nobles was sent to Cusco to inform Ninan Cuyochi. However, Huayna Capac later instead appointed Huáscar as his heir. Since the auguries were negative, the great priest (Villaq Umu) returned to Tumebamba for Huayna Capac to make a new choice.
But at his arrival, the
Sapa Inca
The Sapa Inca (from ; ) was the monarch of the Inca Empire (''Tawantinsuyu'' "the region of the four rovinces), as well as ruler of the earlier Kingdom of Cusco and the later Neo-Inca State at Vilcabamba, Peru, Vilcabamba. While the origins ...
was already dead. Meanwhile, the group of nobles sent to Cusco learned of the death of
Ninan Cuyochi.
[Davies, ''The Incas'', p.181] It was uncertain who should be the next Inca emperor; they had no clear rules of succession.
Two sons of Huayna Capac, Huáscar and Atahualpa, born of different mothers, both claimed the position.
If the sovereign and his successor both died, then a new emperor was elected by the Inca nobles. And so Huáscar was supported by the nobility in Cuzco, by religious and political authorities and other main figures. He was, through his mother, a part of Capac Ayllu, the
panaka of
Topa Inca. His parents, Huayna Capac and Chincha Ocllo, were siblings. As in some other cultures, the Inca violated incest rules to keep religious and political authority limited among a small elite. As to Atahualpa, sources disagree on his ancestry. According to some sources, mainly
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (12 April 1539 – 23 April 1616), born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa and known as El Inca, was a chronicler and writer born in the Viceroyalty of Peru. Sailing to Spain at 21, he was educated informally there, where he li ...
, he was the son of a woman from Quito.
Juan de Velasco says his mother was
Paccha, the queen of Quito. However, the large majority of
reliable sources say that Atahualpa was the son of a woman from the panaka of
Pachacuti.
Therefore, the conflict was most likely a conflict between the panakas.
According to the French historian Henri Favre, the panaka of Topa Inca was in the Hurin (low) part of Cusco. According to him, the conflict was not just opposing the two panakas but all the panakas of Cusco, depending on rather they were Hurin or Hanan (high).
Huáscar was described as ill-tempered, suspicious, and disrespectful of laws and customs. This made him unpopular with the Inca nobles in Cusco. Atahualpa, who already had got the support of the Inca armies stationed north, was now plotting against his brother.
Movements during the war
Soon after Huáscar claimed the throne, he expected all subjects to swear allegiance to him. To announce his loyalty, Atahualpa sent his most trusted captains to
Cuzco
Cusco or Cuzco (; or , ) is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Sacred Valley of the Andes mountain range and the Huatanay river. It is the capital of the eponymous province and department.
The city was the capital of the Inca Empire unti ...
, along with generous gifts of gold and silver (as was customary). Suspicious, Huáscar refused Atahualpa's offering. Accusing the half-brother of rebellion, he ordered some of his messengers killed, and sent back his captains dressed as women. Atahualpa declared war against his brother.
Just before the Spaniards arrived in
Cajamarca, Atahualpa sent troops to Cusco to capture Huáscar, and headed south himself to execute him. (Later
Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro, Marquess of the Atabillos (; ; – 26 June 1541) was a Spanish ''conquistador'', best known for his expeditions that led to the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.
Born in Trujillo, Cáceres, Trujillo, Spain, to a poor fam ...
used this as one of the excuses to execute Atahualpa after Pizarro collected the ransom of gold and silver promised to him for his freedom.)
Huáscar gathered his soldiers in preparation for attack. After getting stunned by his brother, Huáscar proclaimed him a traitor. Generals
Chalcuchimac
Chalcuchima (originally written Challcochima or Challcuchima, also called Chalcuchímac, Calcuchímac or Challkuchimaq in modern sources; born in the latter part of the 15th century; died Cajamarca, Peru, 1533) was, along with Quizquiz and Rumi ...
,
Quizquiz
''QuizQuiz'' (), also known as ''Quiz Quiz'', was a massively multiplayer online (MMO) quiz video game created by Nexon which used a super deformed type anime graphical style to portray the players and the few environments or non-player chara ...
, and
Rumiñawi are believed to have been born in the northern part of the empire, and transferred their loyalty to Atahualpa.
He assembled the former imperial army in
Quito
Quito (; ), officially San Francisco de Quito, is the capital city, capital and second-largest city of Ecuador, with an estimated population of 2.8 million in its metropolitan area. It is also the capital of the province of Pichincha Province, P ...
, the Northern region left for his control. People loyal to Atahualpa created a new capital in Quito, so they could follow their preferred ruler and gain favor within the government. Atahualpa agreed to take the leadership role of Sapa Inca in this new capital.
According to chronicler
Diego de Rosales, at the moment of the civil war an Inca army was suppressing a rebellion in the
Diaguita lands of
Copiapó and Coquimbo.
With the rebellion brutally repressed and the Inca giving rebels "great chastise", the commander of the army departed north to support Huáscar, a cousin.
[
At this news, Huáscar and his army moved north in a surprise attack at ]Tumebamba
Tumebamba, Tomebamba (hispanicized spellings), or Tumipampa (Kichwa language, Kichwa for "''Knife Field''", Tumi: ''Knife'', Pampa (disambiguation), Pampa: ''Field'') was a former main regional city in the Inca Empire. Tumebamba was chosen by the ...
. The local Cañari
The Cañari (in Kichwa: Kañari) are an indigenous ethnic group traditionally inhabiting the territory of the modern provinces of Azuay and Cañar in Ecuador. They are descended from the independent pre-Columbian tribal confederation of the ...
supported the attack, in order to expel the nearest source of power, with the aim to oust the Inca. Atahualpa was captured and imprisoned. While the army celebrated, they got drunk and allowed a woman in to meet Atahualpa. She secretly took a tool that he used that evening to drill a hole and escape.[Cobo, ''History'', p. 165.] He immediately prepared a counterattack with his large, experienced army from Quito.
From 1531 to 1532, the armies fought many battles. Soon after his escape, Atahualpa moved his army south to the city of Ambato. There, on the plains of Mochacaxa, they found Huáscar's men, defeated them, and captured and killed many soldiers. Captives included the head general, Atoc, whom they tortured with darts and arrows. Atahualpa had his skull made into a "gilded drinking cup, which the Spaniards would note that Atahualpa was still using four years later."
Following this victory, Atahualpa strengthened his army and continued south into his brother's land, winning every encounter. Entering Cajamarca, he added to his numbers. He first tried peaceful means to gain loyalty from Huáscar's men; when that did not work, he killed large numbers of opponents. The survivors were frightened into surrender. One report described how Atahualpa massacred the Cañari tribesmen because they pledged allegiance to Huáscar.[''The Hispanic American'', p. 415.] When he finally arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa sent the majority of his army ahead, led by his head generals, while he stayed in the safety of the city and explored rumors that the Spaniards were entering the land.
Atahualpa's army pushed south through Huáscar's territory, winning at Bonbon and Jauja. The battle starting on the hillside of Vilcas seemed to favor Huáscar stationed in a stone fortress at the top of the hill, but eventually he retreated. Atahualpa's men won at Pincos, Andaguayias, at the battle between Curaguaci and Auancay northwest of Cuzco, at Limatambo, about 20 miles from Cuzco, and Ichubamba, where Huáscar's men fled. In 1532, with Cuzco endangered, "Huáscar sent another army to meet Atahualpa's, but after precarious battles, his forces were routed," and Huáscar was captured. Atahualpa's army had won the war. The news traveled back to Atahualpa in Cajamarca, where the army learned about the Spanish incursion.
Pizarro and the end of the Spanish conquest of Peru
Atahualpa was saluted as a hero; he recaptured Cajamarca, making camp outside the city with some 40,000 troops while Chalcuchimac
Chalcuchima (originally written Challcochima or Challcuchima, also called Chalcuchímac, Calcuchímac or Challkuchimaq in modern sources; born in the latter part of the 15th century; died Cajamarca, Peru, 1533) was, along with Quizquiz and Rumi ...
and Quizquiz
''QuizQuiz'' (), also known as ''Quiz Quiz'', was a massively multiplayer online (MMO) quiz video game created by Nexon which used a super deformed type anime graphical style to portray the players and the few environments or non-player chara ...
chased Huáscar's army to the south. With a disastrous northern campaign, Huáscar had not only lost his best generals and many soldiers, but his army was shocked and demoralized. Huascar and Atahualpa's armies met. Although Huáscar had a dominant position, he did not use it, instead retreating across the Cotabambas River on the way to Cuzco
Cusco or Cuzco (; or , ) is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Sacred Valley of the Andes mountain range and the Huatanay river. It is the capital of the eponymous province and department.
The city was the capital of the Inca Empire unti ...
.
Chalkuchimac had a plan of his own and predicted the action of Topa Atao. He divided his army in two, sending one contingent around Topa Atao's back, and enveloping and destroying the defenders. In January 1532, only miles from Cuzco, Huáscar's retreat was cut off at Quipaipan, and his army was annihilated and disbanded. Huáscar was captured and the capital Cuzco was seized by Quizquiz. He purged it of Huáscar's supporters in a massacre. Huáscar was executed the following year.
During the course of the war, Atahualpa's army had grown to 250,000 men, all the strength of the Empire. However, before he could leave Cajamarca, the new emperor encountered the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, who had reached the city on 16 November 1532. Atahualpa was captured in the ensuing Battle of Cajamarca.
While holding Atahualpa in custody, Pizarro told him he would have Huáscar brought to Cajamarca and would determine which brother was the better Sapa Inca
The Sapa Inca (from ; ) was the monarch of the Inca Empire (''Tawantinsuyu'' "the region of the four rovinces), as well as ruler of the earlier Kingdom of Cusco and the later Neo-Inca State at Vilcabamba, Peru, Vilcabamba. While the origins ...
. In response, Atahualpa ordered Huáscar killed, allegedly by drowning, to prevent him from creating an alliance with the Spanish. Atahualpa also ordered that relatives and supporters of Huáscar be killed to weaken any resistance movements from forming. Atahualpa's men searched for Huayna Capac's sons, but several are believed to have survived by hiding. Months later, on August 29, 1533, Pizarro's men executed Atahualpa by strangulation at the plaza of Cajamarca after accusing him of multiple crimes.
Casualties
It is unknown how many Incas were killed or died during the civil war. However, the estimated population of the Inca empire before an epidemic and the Spanish conquest is estimated to be between 6 and 14 million people. The epidemic is believed to have killed 200,000 people, however, this number could be much larger. The combined factors of civil war, an epidemic, and the Spanish conquest resulted in an estimated population decline of 95 percent over the next century.
Notes
Bibliography
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{{Inca Empire topics
Inca Empire
History of South America
Civil wars involving the states and peoples of South America
Civil wars of the Middle Ages
Battles involving the Inca Empire
Pre-Columbian warfare
Conflicts in 1529
1530s conflicts
1529 in the Inca civilization
1532 in the Inca civilization
1530 in the Inca civilization
1531 in the Inca civilization
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of South America
Wars involving Indigenous peoples of South America