''Imleria badia'',
commonly known as the bay bolete, is a species of
pored mushroom. First described scientifically by
Elias Fries
Elias Magnus Fries (15 August 1794 – 8 February 1878) was a Swedish mycologist and botanist. He is sometimes called the "Linnaeus of Mycology". In his works he described and assigned botanical names to hundreds of fungus and lichen sp ...
in 1818, the bay bolete was reclassified as ''Xerocomus badius'' in 1931, and it is still listed thus in several sources. Modern
molecular phylogenetic
Molecular phylogenetics () is the branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences, predominantly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. From these analyses, it is possible to ...
studies show ''
Xerocomus
''Xerocomus'' is a genus of poroid fungi related to ''Boletus''. Most members of ''Xerocomus'' are edible mushroom, edible, though of mediocre gastronomical value and inferior to the sought-after Boletus edulis, porcini.
Taxonomy
Many mycol ...
'' to be
polyphyletic
A polyphyletic group is an assemblage that includes organisms with mixed evolutionary origin but does not include their most recent common ancestor. The term is often applied to groups that share similar features known as Homoplasy, homoplasies ...
(not descended from the same
common ancestor
Common descent is a concept in evolutionary biology applicable when one species is the ancestor of two or more species later in time. According to modern evolutionary biology, all living beings could be descendants of a unique ancestor commonl ...
), and the bay bolete is not particularly closely related to species in that genus.
Both the common and scientific names refer to the
bay
A bay is a recessed, coastal body of water that directly connects to a larger main body of water, such as an ocean, a lake, or another bay. A large bay is usually called a ''gulf'', ''sea'', ''sound'', or ''bight''. A ''cove'' is a small, ci ...
- or
chestnut
The chestnuts are the deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus ''Castanea'', in the beech family Fagaceae. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
Description
...
-coloured
cap
A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. The origin of the word "cap" comes from the Old French word "chapeau" which means "head co ...
, which is almost spherical in young specimens before broadening and flattening out to a diameter up to . On the cap underside are small yellowish pores that turn dull blue-grey when bruised. The smooth, cylindrical
stipe, measuring long by thick, is coloured like the cap, but paler. Some
varieties
Variety may refer to:
Arts and entertainment Entertainment formats
* Variety (radio)
* Variety show, in theater and television
Films
* ''Variety'' (1925 film), a German silent film directed by Ewald Andre Dupont
* ''Variety'' (1935 film), ...
have been described from eastern North America, differing from the main type in both macroscopic and microscopic
morphology
Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to:
Disciplines
*Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts
*Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies, ...
. The species is found in Eurasia and North America, growing in
coniferous
Conifers () are a group of conifer cone, cone-bearing Spermatophyte, seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the phylum, division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a sin ...
or
mixed woods on the ground or on decaying tree stumps, sometimes in prolific numbers.
Often considered a poor relation of the cep (''
Boletus edulis
''Boletus edulis'' (English: cep, penny bun, porcino) is a basidiomycete fungus, and the type species of the genus ''Boletus''. It is prized as an edible mushroom.
The fungus produces Basidiospore, spore-bearing basidiocarp, fruit bodies ...
''), ''I. badia'' is nevertheless regarded as a choice
edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy fruit bodies of numerous species of macrofungi (fungi that bear fruiting structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye). Edibility may be defined by criteria including the absence of poisonous effect ...
by some authors, such as food expert
Antonio Carluccio, and is sold in markets in Europe and central Mexico. Its mushrooms are less often infested by maggots than other boletes. Several European studies have demonstrated that the mushroom can
bioaccumulate
Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance faster than it can be lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion. Th ...
some
trace metal
Trace metals are the metals subset of trace elements; that is, metals normally present in small but measurable amounts in animal and plant cells and tissues. Some of these trace metals are a necessary part of nutrition and physiology. Some bi ...
s from the soil, such as
mercury,
cobalt
Cobalt is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Co and atomic number 27. As with nickel, cobalt is found in the Earth's crust only in a chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. ...
, and
nickel
Nickel is a chemical element; it has symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel is a hard and ductile transition metal. Pure nickel is chemically reactive, but large pieces are slo ...
. Additionally, the mushroom contains a
pigment
A pigment is a powder used to add or alter color or change visual appearance. Pigments are completely or nearly solubility, insoluble and reactivity (chemistry), chemically unreactive in water or another medium; in contrast, dyes are colored sub ...
that concentrates radioactive
caesium
Caesium (IUPAC spelling; also spelled cesium in American English) is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-golden alkali metal with a melting point of , which makes it one of only f ...
; specimens collected in Europe following the 1986
Chernobyl disaster
On 26 April 1986, the no. 4 reactor of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, located near Pripyat, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union (now Ukraine), exploded. With dozens of direct casualties, it is one of only ...
contained several times more
caesium-137
Caesium-137 (), cesium-137 (US), or radiocaesium, is a radioactive isotope of caesium that is formed as one of the more common fission products by the nuclear fission of uranium-235 and other fissionable isotopes in nuclear reactors and nucle ...
than those collected before the incident.
Taxonomy
The bay bolete was first named as ''Boletus castaneus'' ß ''badius'' (i.e. a
subspecies
In Taxonomy (biology), biological classification, subspecies (: subspecies) is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (Morphology (biology), morpholog ...
of ''
Boletus castaneus'') by
Elias Magnus Fries
Elias Magnus Fries (15 August 1794 – 8 February 1878) was a Swedish mycologist and botanist. He is sometimes called the Mycology, "Linnaeus of Mycology". In his works he described and assigned botanical names to hundreds of fungus and li ...
in 1818. Fries later renamed it as a
variety
Variety may refer to:
Arts and entertainment Entertainment formats
* Variety (radio)
* Variety show, in theater and television
Films
* ''Variety'' (1925 film), a German silent film directed by Ewald Andre Dupont
* ''Variety'' (1935 film), ...
of ''Boletus castaneus'' in 1828,
before assigning it distinct species status in his 1832 work ''Elenchus Fungorum''.
The fungus has been transferred to several genera in its
taxonomic
280px, Generalized scheme of taxonomy
Taxonomy is a practice and science concerned with classification or categorization. Typically, there are two parts to it: the development of an underlying scheme of classes (a taxonomy) and the allocation ...
history: ''Rostkovites'' by
Petter Karsten
Petter Adolf Karsten (16 February 1834 – 22 March 1917) was a Finnish mycologist, the foremost expert on the fungi of Finland in his day, and known in consequence as the "father of Finnish mycology".
Karsten was born in Merimasku near Turku ...
in 1881;
''Viscipellis'' and ''Ixocomus'' by
Lucien Quélet
Lucien Quélet (; 14 July 1832 – 25 August 1899) was a French natural history, naturalist and mycologist. Quélet discovered several species of fungi and was the founder of the Société mycologique de France, a society devoted to mycological ...
in 1886 and 1888, respectively;
and ''
Suillus
''Suillus'' is a genus of basidiomycete fungi in the family Suillaceae and order Boletales. Species in the genus are associated with trees in the pine family (Pinaceae), and are mostly distributed in temperate locations in the Northern Hemisphe ...
'' by
Otto Kuntze
Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze (23 June 1843 – 27 January 1907) was a German botanist.
Biography
Otto Kuntze was born in Leipzig.
An apothecary in his early career, he published an essay entitled ''Pocket Fauna of Leipzig''. Between 1863 and 1866, he ...
in 1898.
In 1931,
Edouard-Jean Gilbert reclassified it in the genus ''
Xerocomus
''Xerocomus'' is a genus of poroid fungi related to ''Boletus''. Most members of ''Xerocomus'' are edible mushroom, edible, though of mediocre gastronomical value and inferior to the sought-after Boletus edulis, porcini.
Taxonomy
Many mycol ...
'',
and many sources still list it thus.
Review of ''Xerocomus'' strongly suggested it was
polyphyletic
A polyphyletic group is an assemblage that includes organisms with mixed evolutionary origin but does not include their most recent common ancestor. The term is often applied to groups that share similar features known as Homoplasy, homoplasies ...
, and the genus was not accepted by some mycologists. The stickiness of its wet cap distinguishes the species from others classified in ''Xerocomus'', and hence it was left in ''
Boletus
''Boletus'' is a genus of mushroom-producing fungi, comprising over 100 species. The genus ''Boletus'' was originally broadly defined and described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, essentially containing all fungi with hymenial pores instead of gills. ...
'' until Alfredo Vizzini placed it in its own genus in 2014.
Genetic analysis published in 2013 shows that ''Imleria badia'' is related to ''
B. pallidus'' and ''
B. glabellus''; the three species form a
clade
In biology, a clade (), also known as a Monophyly, monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that is composed of a common ancestor and all of its descendants. Clades are the fundamental unit of cladistics, a modern approach t ...
known informally as the ''badius'' clade within a larger group (informally called anaxoboletus) in the suborder
Boletineae. Other clades within the group include the ''
Tylopilus
''Tylopilus'' is a genus of over 100 species of mycorrhizal bolete fungi separated from '' Boletus''. Its best known member is the bitter bolete (''Tylopilus felleus''), the only species found in Europe. More species are found in North America, ...
'',
porcini
''Boletus edulis'' (English: cep, penny bun, porcino) is a basidiomycete fungus, and the type species of the genus '' Boletus''. It is prized as an edible mushroom.
The fungus produces spore-bearing fruit bodies above ground in summer a ...
(= ''Boletus''
''sensu stricto'') and ''
Strobilomyces'' clades, as well as two other groups composed of members of various genera including ''Xerocomus'' (the taxa designated as ''Xerocomus'' species in this clade are not ''Xerocomus'' species and require new taxonomic designations) and ''
Xerocomellus
''Xerocomellus'' is a genus of fungi in the family Boletaceae. The genus, as it was described in 2008, contained 12 species. However ''Hortiboletus rubellus, X. rubellus'' and ''Hortiboletus engelii, X. engelii'' were transferred to the new gen ...
''.

The species ''Boletus limatulus'', originally published by
Charles Christopher Frost
Charles Christopher Frost (November 11, 1805 – March 16, 1880) was an American mycologist. He described several species of fungi from the New England area of the United States. In one paper, Frost described 22 new species of boletes, and he wa ...
in 1874,
was later redescribed, "with a slight tinge of irritation at the time, energy and gasoline spent", as a variety of ''I. badia'' by
Wally Snell in 1945 (as ''Xerocomus badius'' var. ''limatulus'').
The
taxon
In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; : taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular name and ...
name comes from the
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
''limatulus'', "rather polished" or "refined".
[ Varieties ''glaber'' and ''macrostipitatus'' were described from ]Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada, located on its east coast. It is one of the three Maritime Canada, Maritime provinces and Population of Canada by province and territory, most populous province in Atlan ...
, Canada, in 1976.
The starting date of fungal taxonomy had been set as January 1, 1821, to coincide with the date of the works of Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries, the "father of mycology". Rolf Singer
Rolf Singer (June 23, 1906 – January 18, 1994) was a German mycologist and Taxonomy (biology), taxonomist of gilled mushrooms (agarics).
He wrote the book "The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy (biology), Taxonomy". He fled to various countries d ...
argued that setting the starting date earlier to Christiaan Persoon's 1801 publication of ''Synopsis'' would make a name change necessary, as he had originally given what is now known as '' Royoporus badius'' the combination ''Boletus badius'' Pers. and if the bay bolete was classified in the genus ''Boletus'', the name would be unavailable and the names ''Boletus glutinosus'' Krombh. or ''B. spadiceus'' Krombh. (non Fr.) would have to be used instead.
The species name
In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, altho ...
is the Latin adjective ''badia'', meaning "chestnut brown". The common name
In biology, a common name of a taxon or organism (also known as a vernacular name, English name, colloquial name, country name, popular name, or farmer's name) is a name that is based on the normal language of everyday life; and is often con ...
is likewise derived from the colour of the cap, likened to the coat of a bay horse. Alternate common names of a similar derivation include bay-brown bolete and bay-capped bolete, and it is known as ''bolet bai'' in French. It is also known as the ''false cep''. Variety ''glaber'' was named for its smooth (Latin: ''glaber'', "without hairs") stipe, and ''macrostipitatus'' for its large (Latin: ''macro'', "large") stipe.
Description
''Imleria badia'' fruit bodies have a chestnut
The chestnuts are the deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus ''Castanea'', in the beech family Fagaceae. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
Description
...
to dark brown cap
A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. The origin of the word "cap" comes from the Old French word "chapeau" which means "head co ...
, which is almost spherical in young specimens before broadening and flattening out to a diameter of up to . The cap margin is acute, and cap surface velvety when young and slightly sticky when wet or old. The cap cuticle is difficult to separate from the flesh
Flesh is any aggregation of soft tissues of an organism. Various multicellular organisms have soft tissues that may be called "flesh". In mammals, including humans, ''flesh'' encompasses muscles, fats and other loose connective tissues, ...
underneath. On the cap undersurface, the pores are initially cream to pale yellow, but become greenish yellow or olive with age. They stain dull blue to bluish-grey when bruised or cut, and are easily removed from the flesh. The pores are initially circular, becoming more angular with age, and number about one or two per millimetre. The tubes are long, and are adnate to depressed around the area of attachment to the stipe.
The flesh is mostly whitish or yellowish in some places; underneath the cap cuticle, it is brownish-pink or reddish brown. Initially firm, it begins to soften under the cap in older mushrooms. In some parts of the cap, such as the junction of the cap and the stipe, the flesh stains pale blue when injured or exposed to air, particularly in damp weather. This change is sometimes faint, and not persistent, as it eventually reverts to its original colour. The stipe is long by thick, and is similar in colour to the cap but paler, and sometimes with a rose-coloured tinge. Its surface has faint longitudinal ridges, a fine powdering, and fine reticulations (a net-like pattern of ridges) at the apex. It often has a whitish region at the base and the top, and white mycelium
Mycelium (: mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Its normal form is that of branched, slender, entangled, anastomosing, hyaline threads. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are fo ...
at the base. Unlike the bulbous stipe of many other boletes, the stipe of ''B. badius'' remains relatively slim and cylindrical. The flesh of the stipe gets tougher with age. Its smell has been described as fruity.
The spore print
300px, Making a spore print of the mushroom ''Volvariella volvacea'' shown in composite: (photo lower half) mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; (photo upper half) cap removed after 24 hours showing warm orange ("tussock") color spore print. ...
is olive to olive-brown. The smooth spore
In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual reproduction, sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for biological dispersal, dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores fo ...
s are somewhat oblong to slightly ventricose (fattened in the middle), and measure 10–14 by 4–5 μm. The basidia
A basidium (: basidia) is a microscopic spore-producing structure found on the hymenophore of reproductive bodies of basidiomycete fungi. The presence of basidia is one of the main characteristic features of the group. These bodies are also ...
(spore-bearing cells) are four-spored and measure 25–35 by 8–10 μm. Pleurocystidia (cystidia
A cystidium (: cystidia) is a relatively large cell found on the sporocarp of a basidiomycete (for example, on the surface of a mushroom gill), often between clusters of basidia. Since cystidia have highly varied and distinct shapes that are o ...
found on the faces of the tubes) are fuse-shaped and ventricose, with dimensions of 50–60 by 10–14 μm.
Variety ''B. b. macrostipitatus'' differs from the main form by its grey-orange cap, shorter stipe measuring , longer spores (15–18 by 4–5 μm), and longer pleurocystidia (30–55 by 10–14 μm). The variety ''B. b. glaber'' has a smooth (glabrous
Glabrousness () is the technical term for a lack of hair, down, setae, trichomes, or other such covering. A glabrous surface may be a natural characteristic of all or part of a plant or animal, or be due to loss because of a physical condition, ...
) stipe, and smaller pleurocystidia (35–40 by 10–15 μm) and cheilocystidia (25–30 by 9–12 μm).
Several chemical tests
A chemical substance is a unique form of matter with constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. Chemical substances may take the form of a single element or chemical compounds. If two or more chemical substances can be combine ...
can be used to help identify the mushroom. A drop of ammonium hydroxide
Ammonia solution, also known as ammonia water, ammonium hydroxide, ammoniacal liquor, ammonia liquor, aqua ammonia, aqueous ammonia, or (inaccurately) ammonia, is a solution of ammonia in water. It can be denoted by the symbols NH3(aq). Although ...
solution turns the cap cuticle a greenish to bluish colour. Application of iron(II) sulphate solution causes the flesh to stain a dull bluish-green, while the pores turn golden brown with a drop of dilute potassium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula K OH, and is commonly called caustic potash.
Along with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), KOH is a prototypical strong base. It has many industrial and niche applications, most of which utili ...
.
Similar species
The similar colouration may cause confusion with '' Boletus projectellus'', but the latter species is usually more robust, and has a reticulated stipe. Additionally, ''B. projectellus'' has the largest spores in the Boletaceae, up to about 30 μm in diameter. Another lookalike is '' Austroboletus gracilis'', but this species does not have a blue bruising reaction, and its pore surface is initially white before turning pinkish. Compared to ''I. badia'', '' B. subtomentosus'' fruit bodies have narrower stipes, paler brown, dry caps, and wider pores that do not stain blue on bruising. This latter species is not as good to eat. In western North America, ''I. badia'' is replaced by the similar '' B. zelleri'', which also grows both on the ground and on rotten wood. The European species '' Xerocomus bubalinus'' can be mistaken for ''I. badia'', but it has a paler yellow-brown cap flushed with pinkish-red, and is not sticky when wet.
Ecology, distribution and habitat
Although the bay bolete is predominantly a mycorrhiza
A mycorrhiza (; , mycorrhiza, or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant. The term mycorrhiza refers to the role of the fungus in the plant's rhizosphere, the plant root system and its surroundings. Mycorrhizae play ...
l species, it does have some saprophytic
Saprotrophic nutrition or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed (dead or waste) organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi ...
tendencies and may be able to use this lifestyle in certain circumstances. The ectomycorrhiza
An ectomycorrhiza (from Greek ἐκτός ', "outside", μύκης ', "fungus", and ῥίζα ', "root"; ectomycorrhizas or ectomycorrhizae, abbreviated EcM) is a form of symbiotic relationship that occurs between a fungal symbiont, or mycobio ...
e formed between ''I. badia'' and spruce
A spruce is a tree of the genus ''Picea'' ( ), a genus of about 40 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal ecosystem, boreal (taiga) regions of the Northern hemisphere. ''Picea'' ...
(''Picea abies'') have active hyphal sheaths and a higher potential to store nitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen is a Nonmetal (chemistry), nonmetal and the lightest member of pnictogen, group 15 of the periodic table, often called the Pnictogen, pnictogens. ...
, phosphorus
Phosphorus is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol P and atomic number 15. All elemental forms of phosphorus are highly Reactivity (chemistry), reactive and are therefore never found in nature. They can nevertheless be prepared ar ...
, potassium
Potassium is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol K (from Neo-Latin ) and atomic number19. It is a silvery white metal that is soft enough to easily cut with a knife. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmospheric oxygen to ...
, magnesium
Magnesium is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Mg and atomic number 12. It is a shiny gray metal having a low density, low melting point and high chemical reactivity. Like the other alkaline earth metals (group 2 ...
, iron
Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...
, and zinc
Zinc is a chemical element; it has symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodic tabl ...
than other mycorrhizal types, indicating the fungus is well adapted to acidic stands and its mycorrhizae are very efficient in uptake and storage of macronutrient
A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excret ...
s. Mycorrhizae with Monterey pine
''Pinus radiata'' (synonym (taxonomy), syn. ''Pinus insignis''), the Monterey pine, insignis pine or radiata pine, is a species of pine native to the Central Coast (California), Central Coast of California and Mexico (on Guadalupe Island and Ced ...
(''Pinus radiata'') have also been described.
The bay bolete is common in coniferous
Conifers () are a group of conifer cone, cone-bearing Spermatophyte, seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the phylum, division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a sin ...
and less commonly mixed woodlands in Europe, from the British Isles, where it is abundant throughout from August to November, east to the Black Sea Region in Turkey. In Asia, the species has been recorded from Jordan mainland China, and Taiwan. The North American distribution extends from eastern Canada west to Minnesota
Minnesota ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario to the north and east and by the U.S. states of Wisconsin to the east, Iowa to the so ...
and south to North Carolina
North Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, South Carolina to the south, Georgia (U.S. stat ...
, where the mushroom fruits from July to November. It also grows in central Mexico. The variety ''B. b. macrostipitatus'' is found from eastern Canada south to Maine
Maine ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the United States, and the northeasternmost state in the Contiguous United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Provinces and ...
and New York state
New York, also called New York State, is a state in the northeastern United States. Bordered by New England to the east, Canada to the north, and Pennsylvania and New Jersey to the south, its territory extends into both the Atlantic Ocean and ...
, while variety ''B. b. glaber'' is known from the Atlantic Maritime Ecozone of eastern Canada. Fruit bodies appear singly or scattered on the ground, or on decaying tree stumps, and can be well hidden by pine needles and ferns. Fruiting tends to peak three or four days after rain during warm weather. They can be prolific, especially in highland
Highlands or uplands are areas of high elevation such as a mountainous region, elevated mountainous plateau or high hills. Generally, ''upland'' refers to a range of hills, typically from up to , while ''highland'' is usually reserved for range ...
areas that are humid and shady. It is commonly found under white pine
''Pinus'', the pines, is a genus of approximately 111 extant tree and shrub species. The genus is currently split into two subgenera: subgenus ''Pinus'' (hard pines), and subgenus ''Strobus'' (soft pines). Each of the subgenera have been further ...
, spruce, and hemlock, and also occurs under deciduous trees, especially beech
Beech (genus ''Fagus'') is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of Mesophyte, mesophytic forests) Eurasia and North America. There are 14 accepted ...
. It can also occur in grassy or mossy areas at or near forest margins; Italian restaurateur and cook Antonio Carluccio recalled picking them in the grounds of Blenheim Palace
Blenheim Palace ( ) is a country house in Woodstock, Oxfordshire, England. It is the seat of the Dukes of Marlborough. Originally called Blenheim Castle, it has been known as Blenheim Palace since the 19th century. One of England's larg ...
. It does not occur on calcareous
Calcareous () is an adjective meaning "mostly or partly composed of calcium carbonate", in other words, containing lime (mineral), lime or being chalky. The term is used in a wide variety of Science, scientific disciplines.
In zoology
''Calcare ...
(chalky) soils.
''I. badia'' fruit bodies are less affected by insects than other boletes. Orbatid mites such as '' Carabodes femoralis'', '' Nothrus silvestris'' and '' Oribatula tibialis'' eat them, as do squirrels. Several microbial pathogens can damage the fruit bodies, and have had an effect on populations in China, including soft rot caused by ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa
''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' is a common Bacterial capsule, encapsulated, Gram-negative bacteria, Gram-negative, Aerobic organism, aerobic–facultative anaerobe, facultatively anaerobic, Bacillus (shape), rod-shaped bacteria, bacterium that can c ...
'', and black mould caused by ''Mucor
''Mucor'' is a microbial genus of approximately 40 species of molds and dimorphic fungi in the family Mucoraceae. The genus includes both pathogenic and avirulent species, and some members of it can be utilized in biotechnical applications. ...
'', '' Sepedonium'', ''Paecilomyces
''Paecilomyces'' is a genus of fungi. A number of species in this genus are plant pathogens.
Several of the entomopathogenic fungi, entomopathogenic species, such as "''Paecilomyces fumosoroseus''" have now been placed in the genus ''Isaria'', ...
'', and '' Diasporangium'' species.
Uses
Often considered a poor relation of the cep (''Boletus edulis
''Boletus edulis'' (English: cep, penny bun, porcino) is a basidiomycete fungus, and the type species of the genus ''Boletus''. It is prized as an edible mushroom.
The fungus produces Basidiospore, spore-bearing basidiocarp, fruit bodies ...
''), the bay bolete is nevertheless highly regarded as a choice edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy fruit bodies of numerous species of macrofungi (fungi that bear fruiting structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye). Edibility may be defined by criteria including the absence of poisonous effect ...
by some authors such as Carluccio. In central Mexico, it is collected from Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park and sold in neighbouring markets. It may cause an allergic reaction in some people, and the blue discolouration upon bruising can be offputting, although the staining disappears from white flesh when it is cooked. The flavour is milder than its better-known relative. Younger specimens are best for eating, though more mature ones can be suitable for cutting up and drying. The tendency for the pores to absorb water means that wiping rather than washing is recommended before use in the kitchen. Unlike most boletes, ''I. badia'' can be eaten raw (though only young mushrooms should be used). Otherwise it can be fried in butter, or used with meat or fish recipes. Mushrooms can also be frozen, dried, or pickled
Pickling is the process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The pickling procedure typically affects the food's texture and flavor. The resulting food is called ...
in cider vinegar, wine, or extra virgin olive oil, and later used in sauces or soups.
The fruit bodies can be used to make mushroom dye
Mushrooms can be used to create color Dye#Synthetic dyes, dyes via color-extraction with a solvent (often ammonia) as well as particulation of raw material. The Sarcodon imbricatus, shingled hedgehog mushroom and related species contain blue-green ...
s. Depending on the mordant
A mordant or dye fixative is a substance used to set (i.e., bind) dyes on fabrics. It does this by forming a coordination complex with the dye, which then attaches to the fabric (or tissue). It may be used for dyeing fabrics or for intensifying ...
used, colours ranging from yellow, orange, gold, and green-brown can be obtained. Without mordant, a yellow colour is produced.
Research
In laboratory experiments, extract
An extract (essence) is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol, oil or water. Extracts may be sold as tinctures or absolutes or dried and powdered.
The aromatic principles of ma ...
s of ''I. badia'' fruit bodies have been shown to have significant antioxidative properties ''in vitro
''In vitro'' (meaning ''in glass'', or ''in the glass'') Research, studies are performed with Cell (biology), cells or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in ...
''. Fruit bodies contain the compound theanine
Theanine , also known as L-theanine, L-gamma-glutamylethylamide, or ''N''5-ethyl-L-glutamine, is a non-proteinogenic amino acid similar to the proteinogenic amino acids glutamic acid, L-glutamate and glutamine, L-glutamine. It is produced by ce ...
, an amino acid
Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. Although over 500 amino acids exist in nature, by far the most important are the 22 α-amino acids incorporated into proteins. Only these 22 a ...
and a glutamic acid
Glutamic acid (symbol Glu or E; known as glutamate in its anionic form) is an α- amino acid that is used by almost all living beings in the biosynthesis of proteins. It is a non-essential nutrient for humans, meaning that the human body can ...
analogue found in green tea
Green tea is a type of tea made from the leaves and buds of the '' Camellia sinensis'' that have not undergone the withering and oxidation process that creates oolong teas and black teas. Green tea originated in China in the late 1st millenn ...
. Efforts have been made to establish a protocol for producing theanine by growing the fungus mycelium using submerged fermentation
Fermentation is a type of anaerobic metabolism which harnesses the redox potential of the reactants to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and organic end products. Organic molecules, such as glucose or other sugars, are catabolized and reduce ...
. Several indole
Indole is an organic compound with the formula . Indole is classified as an aromatic heterocycle. It has a bicyclic structure, consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered pyrrole ring. Indoles are derivatives of indole ...
compounds have been detected in fruit bodies. Unprocessed mushrooms contain tryptophan
Tryptophan (symbol Trp or W)
is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Tryptophan contains an α-amino group, an α-carboxylic acid group, and a side chain indole, making it a polar molecule with a non-polar aromat ...
(0.68 mg per 100 g dry weight
Vehicle weight is a measurement of wheeled motor vehicles; either an actual measured weight of the vehicle under defined conditions or a gross weight rating for its weight carrying capacity.
Curb or kerb weight
Curb weight (American English) or k ...
), tryptamine
Tryptamine is an indolamine metabolite of the essential amino acid tryptophan. The chemical structure is defined by an indole—a fused benzene and pyrrole ring, and a 2-aminoethyl group at the second carbon (third aromatic atom, with the firs ...
(0.47), serotonin
Serotonin (), also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a monoamine neurotransmitter with a wide range of functions in both the central nervous system (CNS) and also peripheral tissues. It is involved in mood, cognition, reward, learning, ...
(0.52), kynurenine
-Kynurenine is a metabolite of the amino acid -tryptophan used in the production of niacin.
Kynurenine is synthesized by the enzyme tryptophan dioxygenase, which is made primarily but not exclusively in the liver, and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygena ...
sulphate (1.96), and kynurenic acid
Kynurenic acid (KYNA or KYN) is a product of the normal metabolism of amino acid -tryptophan. It has been shown that kynurenic acid possesses neuroactive activity. It acts as an antiexcitotoxic and anticonvulsant, most likely through acting as an ...
(1.57). Due to their temperature sensitivity, cooking significantly changes the contents and composition of indole compounds: cooked mushrooms contained tryptophan (1.74 mg/100 g dw), 5- methyltryptophan (6.55), melatonin
Melatonin, an indoleamine, is a natural compound produced by various organisms, including bacteria and eukaryotes. Its discovery in 1958 by Aaron B. Lerner and colleagues stemmed from the isolation of a substance from the pineal gland of cow ...
(0.71), and indoleacetonitrile (2.07). Fruit body extracts have been shown to slow the growth of certain tumour cell lines in cell culture
Cell culture or tissue culture is the process by which cell (biology), cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside of their natural environment. After cells of interest have been Cell isolation, isolated from living tissue, ...
.
Polish studies found that although the mushroom bioaccumulates mercury and cobalt
Cobalt is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Co and atomic number 27. As with nickel, cobalt is found in the Earth's crust only in a chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. ...
from the soil, occasional consumption of mushrooms should not cause maximum allowable intake doses to be exceeded. Similar conclusions about safety were made in a Polish study of the mushroom's ability to accumulate organochlorine
Organochlorine chemistry is concerned with the properties of organochlorine compounds, or organochlorides, organic compounds that contain one or more carbon–chlorine bonds. The chloroalkane class (alkanes with one or more hydrogens substituted ...
compounds. Different methods of preparation for consumption affect the leaching rate of cadmium
Cadmium is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This soft, silvery-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12 element, group 12, zinc and mercury (element), mercury. Like z ...
, lead
Lead () is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol Pb (from Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a Heavy metal (elements), heavy metal that is density, denser than most common materials. Lead is Mohs scale, soft and Ductility, malleabl ...
, and mercury. After the 1986 Chernobyl disaster
On 26 April 1986, the no. 4 reactor of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, located near Pripyat, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union (now Ukraine), exploded. With dozens of direct casualties, it is one of only ...
, several studies showed ''I. badia'' bioaccumulates radioactive caesium, 137Cs. 137Cs is produced in nuclear power plants following the chain
A chain is a serial assembly of connected pieces, called links, typically made of metal, with an overall character similar to that of a rope in that it is flexible and curved in compression but linear, rigid, and load-bearing in tension. A ...
decay of 235U to 137Te, and has a half-life Half-life is a mathematical and scientific description of exponential or gradual decay.
Half-life, half life or halflife may also refer to:
Film
* Half-Life (film), ''Half-Life'' (film), a 2008 independent film by Jennifer Phang
* ''Half Life: ...
of thirty years. A German study showed that mushrooms collected from 1986 to 1988 had radiocaesium contents that were 8.3 to 13.6 times greater than mushrooms collected before the accident in 1985. This caesium-sequestering effect is caused by a brown pigment
A pigment is a powder used to add or alter color or change visual appearance. Pigments are completely or nearly solubility, insoluble and reactivity (chemistry), chemically unreactive in water or another medium; in contrast, dyes are colored sub ...
, the polyphenol
Polyphenols () are a large family of naturally occurring phenols. They are abundant in plants and structurally diverse. Polyphenols include phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannic acid, and ellagitannin, some of which have been used historically as ...
compound norbadione A, which is related to a family of mushroom pigments known as pulvinic acid
Pulvinic acids are natural chemical pigments found in some lichens, derived biosynthetically from the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine, via dimerization and oxidative ring-cleavage of arylpyruvic acids, a process that also produces ...
s. Norbadione A has been investigated for its ability to provide a protective effect against the damaging effects of ionizing radiation
Ionizing (ionising) radiation, including Radioactive decay, nuclear radiation, consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have enough energy per individual photon or particle to ionization, ionize atoms or molecules by detaching ...
. Tests with cell cultures and mice show that although it has some protective effect, it is toxic
Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a subst ...
to cells in higher doses. A new series of alkali chelators based on the structure of norbadione A has been reported. The mushroom may have potential as a bioremediation
Bioremediation broadly refers to any process wherein a biological system (typically bacteria, microalgae, fungi in mycoremediation, and plants in phytoremediation), living or dead, is employed for removing environmental pollutants from air, wate ...
agent to clean up contaminated
Contamination is the presence of a constituent, impurity, or some other undesirable element that renders something unsuitable, unfit or harmful for the physical body, natural environment, workplace, etc.
Types of contamination
Within the scienc ...
sites.
See also
* List of North American boletes __NOTOC__
This is a list of bolete species found in North America.
Bolding of the species name, and an asterisk (*) following indicate the species is the type species of that genus.
''Aureoboletus''
*''Aureoboletus auriporus''
*''Aureoboletus ge ...
Notes
References
External links
*
*
*
{{Taxonbar, from=Q752497
Boletaceae
Edible fungi
Fungi described in 1818
Fungi of Asia
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of North America
Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries
Fungus species