The "image of God" (; ; ) is a concept and theological doctrine in
Judaism
Judaism () is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, Monotheism, monotheistic, ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jews, Jewish people. Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of o ...
and
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
. It is a foundational aspect of
Judeo-Christian belief with regard to the fundamental understanding of human nature. It stems from the primary text in
Genesis 1:27, which reads (in the Authorized / King James Version): "So
God
In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
created man in his ''own'' image, in the image of God created he him; male and female he created them." The exact meaning of the phrase has been debated for millennia.
Following tradition, a number of Jewish scholars, such as
Saadia Gaon
Saʿadia ben Yosef Gaon (892–942) was a prominent rabbi, Geonim, gaon, Jews, Jewish philosopher, and exegesis, exegete who was active in the Abbasid Caliphate.
Saadia is the first important rabbinic figure to write extensively in Judeo-Arabic ...
and
Philo
Philo of Alexandria (; ; ; ), also called , was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
The only event in Philo's life that can be decisively dated is his representation of the Alexandrian J ...
, argued that being made in the image of God does not mean that God
possesses human-like features, but rather the reverse: that the statement is figurative language for God bestowing special honour unto humankind, which he did not confer unto the rest of creation.
The history of the Christian interpretation of the image of God has included three common lines of understanding: a substantive view locates the image of God in shared characteristics between God and humanity such as rationality or morality; a relational understanding argues that the image is found in human relationships with God and each other; and a functional view interprets the image of God as a role or function whereby humans act on God’s behalf and serve to represent God in the created order. These three views are not strictly competitive and can each offer insight into how humankind resembles God. Furthermore, a fourth and earlier viewpoint involved the physical, corporeal form of God, held by both Christians and Jews.
Doctrine associated with God's image provides important grounding for the development of
human rights
Human rights are universally recognized Morality, moral principles or Social norm, norms that establish standards of human behavior and are often protected by both Municipal law, national and international laws. These rights are considered ...
and the
dignity
Dignity is a human's contentment attained by satisfying physiological needs and a need in development. The content of contemporary dignity is derived in the new natural law theory as a distinct human good.
As an extension of the Enlightenment- ...
of each human life regardless of class, race, gender, or disability, and it is also related to conversations about the human body.
Biblical sources
Hebrew Bible
The phrase "image of God" is found in three passages in the
Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;["Tanach"](_blank)
. '' Book of Genesis
The Book of Genesis (from Greek language, Greek ; ; ) is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its Hebrew name is the same as its incipit, first word, (In the beginning (phrase), 'In the beginning'). Genesis purpor ...
1–11:
Apocrypha / Deuterocanonical books
In the
Apocrypha
Apocrypha () are biblical or related writings not forming part of the accepted canon of scripture, some of which might be of doubtful authorship or authenticity. In Christianity, the word ''apocryphal'' (ἀπόκρυφος) was first applied to ...
or
Deuterocanon, there are three passages that explicitly use "image" terminology to describe humanity.
New Testament
The New Testament reflects on Christ as the image of God and humans both as images of God and Christ.
Interpretation of the Biblical texts
Image vs likeness
Theologians have examined the difference between the concepts of the "image of God" and the "likeness of God" in human nature. Origen for instance viewed the image of God as something given at creation, while the likeness of God as something bestowed upon a person at a later time.
While "image and likeness" is a
Hebraism in which an idea is reinforced using two different words, a view arose that "image and likeness" were separate; the image was the human's natural resemblance to God, the power of reason and will, while the likeness was a —a divine gift added to basic human nature. This likeness consisted of the moral qualities of God, whereas the image involved the natural attributes of God. When Adam fell, he lost the likeness, but the image remained fully intact. Humanity as humanity was still complete, but the good and holy being was spoiled.
[Millard J. Erickson, ''Christian Theology'', 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1998), 522.] The image of God and the likeness are similar, but at the same time they are different. The image is just that, mankind is made in the image of God, whereas the likeness is a spiritual attribute of the moral qualities of God.
However, the medieval distinction between the "image" and "likeness" of God has largely been abandoned by modern interpreters. According to C. John Collins, "Since about the time of the Reformation, scholars have recognized that this
mage/likeness distinctiondoes not suit the text itself. First, there is no "and" joining "in our image" with "after our likeness." Second, Genesis 1:27 simply reads "in God's image"; and finally, in Genesis 5:1 God made man "in the likeness of God." The best explanation for these data is to say that "in the image" and "after the likeness" refer to the same thing, with each clarifying the other."
Specific nature of image
The primary biblical texts do not convey any specific ways in which the image of God is recognized in humanity. They do not speak about rationality, morality, emotions, free will, language, or any other similar statements. The words "image" and "likeness" simply carry the basic meaning that humans are like God and represent God. "Such an explanation is unnecessary, not only because the terms had clear meanings, but also because no such list could do justice to the subject: the text only needs to affirm that man is like God, and the rest of Scripture fills in more details to explain this." The various ways in which this is explored are found below in the discussions about substantive, relational, and functional understandings of the image of God.
Progressive resemblance
Early Christians recognized that the image of God was perverted by sin. The Genesis 9 text, however, confirms that the image of God is not destroyed by sin, for the image remains in humanity after the fall and flood. Without compromising a commitment to the dignity of humanity as made in the image of God, the biblical texts point to the idea that the image of God can be developed and matured.
In Genesis 5, the image of God in humanity is correlated with the image of Adam in his son Seth. Commentators have reflected that the son better reflects the father as he matures and that while there may be physical comparisons there is also a resemblance in character traits. "The biblical text, by offering us this explanation, gives us the key that while humans are all in the image of God, they likewise have the capacity to become more and more in the image of God; that is, created with the potential to mirror divine attributes." This lines up with several of the New Testament texts which refer to "being renewed in knowledge" and "being conformed to the image". The idea is that through spiritual growth and understanding one can mature spiritually and become more like God and represent him better to others.
Humans differ from all other creatures because of the self-reflective, rational nature of human thought processes – their capacity for abstract, symbolic as well as concrete deliberation and decision-making. This capacity gives the human the possibility for self-actualization and participation in a
sacred
Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects ( ...
reality (cf. Acts 17:28). However, the creator granted the first true humans the
free will
Free will is generally understood as the capacity or ability of people to (a) choice, choose between different possible courses of Action (philosophy), action, (b) exercise control over their actions in a way that is necessary for moral respon ...
necessary to reject a relationship with the creator that manifested itself in estrangement from God, as the narrative of the
fall (
Adam and Eve
Adam and Eve, according to the creation myth of the Abrahamic religions, were the first man and woman. They are central to the belief that humanity is in essence a single family, with everyone descended from a single pair of original ancestors. ...
) exemplifies, thereby rejecting or repressing their spiritual and moral likeness to God. The ability and desire to love one's self and others, and therefore God, can become
neglect
In the context of caregiving, neglect is a form of abuse where the perpetrator, who is responsible for caring for someone who is unable to care for themselves, fails to do so. It can be a result of carelessness, indifference, or unwillingness and ...
ed and even opposed. The desire to repair the in one's life can be seen as a quest for wholeness, or one's "essential" self, as described and exemplified in
Christ's life and teachings. According to Christian doctrine, Jesus acted to repair the relationship with the Creator and freely offers the resulting reconciliation as a gift.
Christ as image
A uniquely Christian perspective on the image of God is that Jesus Christ is the fullest and most complete example of a human in God's image. Hebrews 1:3 refers to him as "the very image of his substance" and Colossians 1:15 reveals Jesus as "the image of the invisible God". This is relevant to
Christology
In Christianity, Christology is a branch of Christian theology, theology that concerns Jesus. Different denominations have different opinions on questions such as whether Jesus was human, divine, or both, and as a messiah what his role would b ...
which is beyond the scope of this article. Christians however would look to the teachings and example of Jesus to guide their spiritual maturity and conformity to the image of God.
The Beatitudes in Matthew 5:3-12, Colossians Chapter 3, Gospel of John chapters 1-12, and the book of Deuteronomy chapters 6-30 describe the image of God as the moral positives of the Ten Commandments. When the Ten Commandments are separated into moral opposites, seven vices or moral negatives and seven virtues or moral positives result. The seven vices are pride, rebellion, hatred/bitterness, defilement, theft/slothfulness, deceit, and greed/covetousness. The seven virtues or moral positives are humility, obedience, forgiveness/compassion, purity, diligence, honesty, and gratefulness. Failure to see (Matthew 5:8) the Beatitudes, or light (Matthew 5:14-16), or the moral positives of the Ten Commandments (Mark 7:8,13, John 3:19-21) results in the moral negatives of the Ten Commandments (Mark 7:11-12, 14-23). Colossians Chapter 3 contrasts all seven moral opposites of the Ten Commandments. The moral opposites in Colossians 3 contrasts the character of the old man with the image of God found in the new man. See Colossians 3:9-10 for reference to the image of God. The seven moral positives of the Ten Commandments are in the same sequence as the Beatitudes. An outline of the word pictures in the Gospel of John chapters 1-12 and the book of Deuteronomy chapters 6-30 are a contrast of the same seven moral opposites in the same sequence as the Beatitudes. A word picture example of the moral opposites of gratefulness and greed is shown by Mary and Judas in John 12:1-6. Gratefulness in shown by Mary in John 12:1-3. Greed is shown by Judas in John 12:4-6. Another example of greed is pictured in John 11:48. The basis for humility is described as the typological journey (1Corinthians 10:1-13, Ephesians 2:8-10) to maturity in Deuteronomy 8:3-20. This passage also warns of the pathway to pride. These observations or correlations are a fulfillment of Deuteronomy 30:11-15, John 5:46, John 12:44-50, John 14:21-24, Matthew 5:14-16, and Rev 12:17.
Historical context
Scholars still debate the extent to which external cultures influenced the Old Testament writers and their ideas.
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
n epics contain similar elements in their own stories, such as the resting of the deity after creation. Many Mesopotamian religions at the time contained anthropomorphic conceptions of their deities, and some scholars have seen this in Genesis's use of the word "image." John Walton notes, however "the practice of kings setting up images of themselves in places where they want to establish their authority. Other than that, it is only other gods who are made in the image of gods. Thus, their traditions speak of sons being in the image of their fathers but not of human beings created in the image of God.
Moral implications
The Biblical texts sketch some moral implications of the image of God in humanity. The Genesis 9 passage links the image of God to the rationale for prohibiting and punishing murder. The James 3 passage also points out that the tongue which is made by God should not curse that which God has made in his image.
To assert that humans are created in the
image
An image or picture is a visual representation. An image can be Two-dimensional space, two-dimensional, such as a drawing, painting, or photograph, or Three-dimensional space, three-dimensional, such as a carving or sculpture. Images may be di ...
of God may mean to recognize some special qualities of
human nature
Human nature comprises the fundamental dispositions and characteristics—including ways of Thought, thinking, feeling, and agency (philosophy), acting—that humans are said to have nature (philosophy), naturally. The term is often used to denote ...
which allow God to be made
manifest in humans. For humans to have a conscious recognition of having been made in the image of God may mean that they are aware of being that part of the creation through whom God's plans and purposes best can be expressed and actualized; humans, in this way, can interact creatively with the rest of creation. The moral implications of the doctrine of ''Imago dei'' are apparent in the fact that, if humans are to love God, then humans must love other humans whom God has created (cf. John 13:35), as each is an expression of God. The human likeness to God can also be understood by contrasting it with that which does not image God, i.e., beings who are ostensibly without this spiritual self-awareness and the capacity for
spiritual / moral reflection and growth.
In liturgical prayers
= Jewish blessings
=
In Jewish liturgy, and especially in the
Siddur
A siddur ( ''sīddūr'', ; plural siddurim ) is a Jewish prayer book containing a set order of daily prayers. The word comes from the Hebrew root , meaning 'order.'
Other terms for prayer books are ''tefillot'' () among Sephardi Jews, ''tef ...
, there is reference to being created in the divine image. For example, in the "Blessing for a New Day" (prayed at the beginning of Shabbat by Orthodox, Conservative, and other Jewish communities) there is this line:
[''Siddur Lev Shalem for Shabbat & Festivals''. (New York, NY: Rabbinical Assembly 2016), 103.]
This blessing is a version of blessings mentioned in the Tosefta (Berakhot 6:18) and in the Babylonian Talmud (Menaḥot 43b). It is also found manuscript fragments found in the Cairo Genizah.
Also, in expanding upon the ten commandments in prayer, this line exists:
Admittedly, the creation in God's image is not a prevalent or dominant theme in Jewish prayers, but the reference still exist.
= Christian anaphoras
=
Many early Christian
anaphoras make mention of the creation in the image of God when recounting the institution narrative. In a recent peer-reviewed article, Zakhary has argued that such anaphoras utilize image language to introduce the salvation narrative using parallel structure: the human made in the image of God in creation and God coming in human form in the incarnation. The Second Anaphora in the Armenian Liturgy of St. Basil and the anaphora in the Byzantine Liturgy of St. Basil even highlight the restoration of the image through the incarnation and the sharing in the glory of God.
The Anaphora in the Liturgy of St. James also has a reference to the divine image:
You made humankind from the earth after your image and likeness, and granted them the enjoyment of paradise; and when they transgressed your commandment and fell, you did not despise or abandon them, for you are good, but you chastened them as a kindly father, you called them through the law, you taught them through the prophets.
''Apostolic Constitution'' and the Anaphora in the Liturgy of St. Gregory the Theologian have an interesting link between image and authority, complementing Genesis 1:26, which references humanity’s dominion after creation in the Divine image. ''Apostolic Constitutions'' quotes Genesis 1:26 verbatim, while the Anaphora in the Liturgy of St. Gregory the Theologian uses the interesting phrase "You inscribed upon me the image of Your authority."
Three ways of understanding the image of God
In Christian theology there are three common ways of understanding the manner in which humans exist in ''imago dei'': Substantive, Relational and Functional.
Substantive
The substantive view locates the image of God within the psychological or spiritual makeup of the human being. This view holds that there are similarities between humanity and God, thus emphasizing characteristics that are of shared substance between both parties. Some proponents of the substantive view uphold that the rational soul mirrors the divine.
According to this mirroring, humanity is shaped like the way in which a sculpture or painting is in the image of the artist doing the sculpting or painting.
While the substantive view locates the image of God in a characteristic or capacity unique to humanity, such as reason or will, the image may also be found in humanity's capacity to have a relationship with the divine. Unlike the relational view, humanity's capacity to have a relationship with the divine still locates the image of God in a characteristic or capacity that is unique to humanity and not the relationship itself. The substantive view, however, need not focus on a single specific way in which humanity is like God. It can apply to every way in which humanity is like God, just as Seth could be like his father Adam in multiple ways What is important is that the substantive view sees the image of God as present in humanity whether or not an individual person acknowledges the reality of the image.
History of Christian interpretations of the substantive view
= Patristic interpretation of the substantive view
=

The substantive view of the image of God has held particular historical precedence over the development of Christian
Theology
Theology is the study of religious belief from a Religion, religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an Discipline (academia), academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itse ...
particularly among early Patristic Theologians (see
Patristics), like
Irenaeus
Irenaeus ( or ; ; ) was a Greeks, Greek bishop noted for his role in guiding and expanding Christianity, Christian communities in the southern regions of present-day France and, more widely, for the development of Christian theology by oppos ...
and Augustine, and Medieval Theologians, like Aquinas. Irenaeus believes that the essential nature of humanity was not lost or corrupted by the fall, but the fulfillment of humanity's creation, namely freedom and life, was to be delayed until "the filling out the time of
dam'spunishment." Humankind before
the fall) was in the image of God through the ability to exercise
free will
Free will is generally understood as the capacity or ability of people to (a) choice, choose between different possible courses of Action (philosophy), action, (b) exercise control over their actions in a way that is necessary for moral respon ...
and reason. And humans were in the likeness of God through an original spiritual endowment.
While Irenaeus represents an early assertion of the substantive view of the image of God, the specific understanding of the essence of the image of God is explained in great detail by
Augustine
Augustine of Hippo ( , ; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430) was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings deeply influenced the development of Western philosop ...
, a fifth century theologian who describes a Trinitarian formula in the image of God. Augustine's Trinitarian structural definition of the image of God includes memory, intellect, and will.
According to Augustine, "will
��unites those things which are held in the memory with those things which are thence impressed on the mind's eye in conception." The influence of Greco-Roman philosophy, particularly
Neo-Platonic
Neoplatonism is a version of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a series of thinkers. Among the common id ...
, is evident in
Augustine
Augustine of Hippo ( , ; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430) was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings deeply influenced the development of Western philosop ...
's assertion that the human mind was the location of humanity, and thus the location of the image of God. Augustine believed that, since humanity reflects the nature of God, humanity must also reflect the Triune nature of God. Augustine's descriptions of memory, intellect, and will held a dominant theological foothold for a number of centuries in the development of Christian Theology.
= Medieval interpretation of the substantive view
=
Medieval theologians also made a distinction between the image and likeness of God. The former referred to a natural, innate resemblance to God and the latter referred to the moral attributes (God's attributes) that were lost in the fall.
Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas ( ; ; – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican Order, Dominican friar and Catholic priest, priest, the foremost Scholasticism, Scholastic thinker, as well as one of the most influential philosophers and theologians in the W ...
, a medieval theologian writing almost 700 years after Augustine, builds on the Trinitarian structure of Augustine but takes the Trinitarian image of God to a different end. Like Irenaeus and Augustine, Aquinas locates the image of God in humanity's intellectual nature or reason, but Aquinas believes that the image of God is in humanity in three ways. First, which all humanity possess, the image of God is present in humanity's capacity for understanding and loving God, second, which only those who are justified possess, the image is present when humanity actually knows and loves God imperfectly, and thirdly, which only the blessed possess, the image is present when humanity knows and loves God perfectly. Aquinas, unlike Augustine, sees the image of God as present in humanity, but it is only through humanity's response to the image of God that the image is fully present and realized in humanity. Medieval scholars suggested that the holiness (or "wholeness") of humankind was lost after the fall, although free will and reason remained.
John Calvin
John Calvin (; ; ; 10 July 150927 May 1564) was a French Christian theology, theologian, pastor and Protestant Reformers, reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of C ...
and
Martin Luther
Martin Luther ( ; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, Theology, theologian, author, hymnwriter, professor, and former Order of Saint Augustine, Augustinian friar. Luther was the seminal figure of the Reformation, Pr ...
agreed that something of the ''imago dei'' was lost at the fall but that fragments of it remained in some form or another, as Luther's Large Catechism article 114 states, "Man lost the image of God when he fell into sin."
The substantive view can also be seen in the Jewish scholar
Maimonides
Moses ben Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (, ) and also referred to by the Hebrew acronym Rambam (), was a Sephardic rabbi and Jewish philosophy, philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah schola ...
who argues that it is consciousness and the
ability to speak which is the "image of God;" both faculties which differentiate mankind from animals, and allow man to grasp
abstract concepts
Abstract may refer to:
*"Abstract", a 2017 episode of the animated television series '' Adventure Time''
* ''Abstract'' (album), 1962 album by Joe Harriott
* Abstract algebra, sets with specific operations acting on their elements
* Abstract of ...
and ideas that are not merely instinctual.
Rabbinic interpretation of the substantive view

Furthermore, rabbinic
Midrash
''Midrash'' (;["midrash"]
. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. ; or ''midrashot' ...
focuses on the function of image of God in kingship language. While a monarch is cast in the image or likeness of God to differentiate him ontologically from other mortals, Torah's B'reishit portrays the image as democratic: every human is cast in God's image and likeness. This leveling effectively embraces the substantive view and likens humankind to the earthly presence of God. Yet this immanent presence enjoys the ambiguity of midrashim; it is never outrightly characterized as "Godlike," as in ontologically equivalent to God, or merely "Godly," as in striving towards ontological equivalency.
The rabbinic substantive view does not operate out of the framework of
original sin
Original sin () in Christian theology refers to the condition of sinfulness that all humans share, which is inherited from Adam and Eve due to the Fall of man, Fall, involving the loss of original righteousness and the distortion of the Image ...
. In fact, the account of Adam and Eve disobeying God's mandate is neither expressly rendered as "sin" in B'reishit, nor anywhere else in Torah for that matter. It is instead likened to a "painful but necessary graduation from the innocence of childhood to the problem-laden world of living as morally responsible adults." That God fashions garments for Adam and Eve out of skins (Gen 3:21), is cited as proof of God's quickly fading anger. Midrashim, however, finds common ground with the Thomist view of humanity's response to the image of God in the stories of Cain and Abel filtered through the, "Book of Genealogies" (Gen 5:1-6:8). Insofar as the image and likeness of God is transmitted through the act of procreation, Cain and Abel provide examples of what constitutes adequate and inadequate response to the image, and how that image either becomes fully actualized or utterly forsaken. The murder of Abel is cast as preempting the perpetuation of the image through Cain’s potential descendants.
This idea may be likened to the Christian idea of "original sin" in that one's transgression is seen to have grave unintended, or unforeseen, repercussions. Midrashim interprets Gen 4:10 as Abel's blood crying out not only to God, but also "against" Cain, which lays the onus squarely on Adam's firstborn.
Relational
The relational view argues that one must be in a relationship with God in order to possess the 'image' of God. Those who hold to the relational image agree that humankind possess the ability to reason as a substantive trait, but they argue that it is in a relationship with God that the true image is made evident. Later theologians like
Karl Barth
Karl Barth (; ; – ) was a Swiss Reformed theologian. Barth is best known for his commentary '' The Epistle to the Romans'', his involvement in the Confessing Church, including his authorship (except for a single phrase) of the Barmen Decl ...
and
Emil Brunner argue that it is man's ability to establish and maintain complex and intricate relationships that make him like God. For example, in humans the created order of male and female is intended to culminate in spiritual as well as physical unions , reflecting the nature and image of God. Since other creatures do not form such explicitly referential spiritual relationships, these theologians see this ability as uniquely representing the ''imago dei'' in humans.
For
Severian of Gabala (AD 425) the Image of God does not refer to any human nature (corporeal and spiritual), but the relationship with God.
"From this we learn that man is not the image of God because of his soul from him or because of his body from him. If that were the case, woman would be the image of God in exactly the same way as man, because she too has a soul and a body. What we are talking about here is not nature but a relationship. For just as God has nobody over him in all creation, so man has no one over him in the natural world. But a woman does she has man over her".
In the Modern Era, the Image of God was often related to the concept of "freedom" or "free will" and also relationality.
Emil Brunner, a twentieth century Swiss Reformed theologian, wrote that "the formal aspect of human nature, as beings 'made in the image of God", denotes being as Subject, or freedom; it is this which differentiates humanity from the lower creation." He also sees the relationship between God and humanity as a defining part of what it means to be made in God's image.
Paul Ricoeur, a twentieth century French philosopher best known for combining phenomenological description with hermeneutics, argued that there is no defined meaning of the ''imago dei'', or at the very least the author of Genesis 1 "certainly did not master at once all its implicit wealth of meaning."
He went on to say that "In the very essence of the individual, in terms of its quality as a subject; the image of God, we believe, is the very personal and solitary power to think and to choose; it is interiority."
He eventually concluded that the Image of God is best summed up as free will.
The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' states, " It is in Christ, "the image of the invisible God," that man has been created "in the image and likeness" of the Creator.
Pope Benedict XVI
Pope BenedictXVI (born Joseph Alois Ratzinger; 16 April 1927 – 31 December 2022) was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 19 April 2005 until his resignation on 28 February 2013. Benedict's election as p ...
wrote regarding ''imago dei'', "Its nature as an image has to do with the fact that it goes beyond itself and manifests .…the dynamic that sets the human being in motion towards the totally Other. Hence it means the capacity for relationship; it is the human capacity for God."
Functional
The functional view interprets the image of God as a role in the created order, where humankind is a king or ruler over creation/the earth. This view, held by most modern Old Testament/Hebrew Bible scholars, developed with the rise of modern Biblical scholarship and is based on comparative
Ancient Near East
The ancient Near East was home to many cradles of civilization, spanning Mesopotamia, Egypt, Iran (or Persia), Anatolia and the Armenian highlands, the Levant, and the Arabian Peninsula. As such, the fields of ancient Near East studies and Nea ...
ern studies.
Archaeology
Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of Artifact (archaeology), artifacts, architecture, biofact (archaeology), biofacts or ecofacts, ...
discovered many texts where specific kings are exalted as "images" of their respective deities and rule based on divine mandate. There is some evidence that ''imago dei'' language appeared in many Mesopotamian and
Near Eastern
The Near East () is a transcontinental region around the Eastern Mediterranean encompassing the historical Fertile Crescent, the Levant, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula. The term was invented in the 20th ...
cultures where kings were often labeled as images of certain gods or deities and thus, retained certain abilities and responsibilities, such as leading certain cults. The functional approach states that Genesis 1 uses that common idea, but the role is broadened to all humanity who reflect the image through ruling the created order, specifically land and sea animals, according to the pattern of God who rules over the entire universe.
Reformation theologians, like
Martin Luther
Martin Luther ( ; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, Theology, theologian, author, hymnwriter, professor, and former Order of Saint Augustine, Augustinian friar. Luther was the seminal figure of the Reformation, Pr ...
, focused their reflections on the dominant role mankind had over all creation in the Garden of Eden before the fall of man. The ''imago dei'', according to Luther, was the perfect existence of man and woman in
the garden: all knowledge, wisdom and justice, and with peaceful and authoritative
dominion over all created things in perpetuity. Luther breaks with Augustine of Hippo's widely accepted understanding that the image of God in man is internal; it is displayed in the trinity of the memory, intellect and will.
The twentieth and early twenty-first centuries saw the image of God being applied to various causes and ideas including ecology, disabilities, gender, and post/transhumanism.
Often these were reactions against prevailing understandings of the ''imago dei'', or situations in which the Biblical text was being misused in the opinion of some. While some would argue this is appropriate, J. Richard Middleton argued for a reassessment of the Biblical sources to better understand the original meaning before taking it out of context and applying it. Instead of various extra-biblical interpretations, he pushed for a royal-functional understanding, in which "the imago Dei designates the royal office or calling of human beings as God's representatives or agents in the world."
Ecological impact
With the rise of contemporary
ecological
Ecology () is the natural science of the relationships among living organisms and their environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere levels. Ecology overlaps with the closely re ...
concerns the functional interpretation of the image of God has grown in popularity. Some modern theologians are arguing for proper religious care of the earth based on the functional interpretation of the image of God as caregiver over created order. Thus, exerting dominion over creation is an imperative for responsible ecological action.
Critique
One of the critique of the functional interpretation of the ''imago dei'' is that some formulations might convey a negative message that it conveys about persons with disabilities. Within the functional view, it is often thought that disabilities which interfere with one's capacity to "rule," whether physical, intellectual, or psychological, are a distortion of the image of God. This formulation of the functional view isolates and excludes those with disabilities, and some theologians
even use it to go so far as to state that animals more fully display the Image of God than people with profound disabilities. At the same time, however, the substantive view has been criticized for exactly this issue.
In Islamic Theology (''kalām'')
The
Quran
The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
, the sacred text in
Islam
Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
, does not reiterate the concept of the "image of God". However, a statement reminiscent of Genesis is found in hadith. According to said hadith, God created Adam "in his image" (''bi ṣūratihi''). The
Ash'arites, insisting that the Divine has no form, reject the similitude with God by stating that "his" refers to Adam.
Atharis accept a plurality of attributes in God, but risks conceptualizing God as a finite being. The discussions in theology also led to various discussions in
Sufism
Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism.
Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
. One interpretation holds that the heavenly Adam is made "in God's image" so far, as he is able to reflect all of God's attributes like a mirror.
''Imago dei'' and human rights
The ''imago dei'' concept had a very strong influence on the modern conception of
human rights
Human rights are universally recognized Morality, moral principles or Social norm, norms that establish standards of human behavior and are often protected by both Municipal law, national and international laws. These rights are considered ...
.
Puritan origin of human rights
Glen Stassen argues that both the concept and the term human rights originated more than a half-century before the
Enlightenment thinkers like
John Locke
John Locke (; 29 August 1632 (Old Style and New Style dates, O.S.) – 28 October 1704 (Old Style and New Style dates, O.S.)) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of the Enlightenment thi ...
. ''Imago dei'' in reference to
religious liberty of all persons was used by the
free churches (
Dissenters
A dissenter (from the Latin , 'to disagree') is one who dissents (disagrees) in matters of opinion, belief, etc. Dissent may include political opposition to decrees, ideas or doctrines and it may include opposition to those things or the fiat of ...
) at the time of the
Puritan
The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to rid the Church of England of what they considered to be Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should b ...
Revolution as an affirmation of the religious liberty of all persons. The concept was based not only on natural reason but also on the Christian struggle for liberty, justice, and peace for all. The background of this struggle lay in the time of the English Revolution. The king had been alienating many Christians by favoring some churches over others.
According to the scholar of Puritan literature William Haller, "the task of turning the statement of the law of nature into ringing declaration of the rights of man fell to
Richard Overton." Richard Overton was a founding member of the
Leveller
The Levellers were a political movement active during the English Civil War who were committed to popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. The hallmark of Leveller thought was its populism, as sh ...
movement that first argued for human rights as belonging to all human persons. One of the themes that foreshadowed Richard Overton's reason for giving voice to human rights, especially the demand for
separation of church and state
The separation of church and state is a philosophical and Jurisprudence, jurisprudential concept for defining political distance in the relationship between religious organizations and the State (polity), state. Conceptually, the term refers to ...
, is implicitly connected to the concept of the image of God. This was expressed in the ''Confession of Faith'' (1612) by the Puritan group living in Amsterdam. "That as God created all men according to his image
.. That the magistrate is not to force or compel men to this or that form of religion, or doctrine but to leave Christian religion free, to every man's conscience
.."
An ecumenical proposal for human rights
Reformed theologian
Jürgen Moltmann proposed an ecumenical basis for a concept of human rights using ''imago dei ''for the
World Alliance of Reformed Churches
The World Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC) was a fellowship of more than 200 churches with roots in the 16th century Reformation, and particularly in the theology of John Calvin. Its headquarters was in Geneva, Switzerland. They merged with the ...
in 1970. Moltmann understands humans as in a process of restoration toward the original ''imago Dei ''given'' ''in creation. Human rights entail whatever humans need in order to best act as God's divine representatives in the world. All human beings are created in God's image, rather than only a ruler or a king. Any concept of human rights will therefore include: first, democratic relationships when humans rule others, cooperation and fellowship with other humans, cooperation with the environment, and the responsibility for future generations of humans created in God's image.
Judaism
Judaism
Judaism () is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, Monotheism, monotheistic, ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jews, Jewish people. Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of o ...
holds the essential dignity of every human. One of the factors upon which this is based is an appeal to ''imago dei'':"the astonishing assertion that God created human beings in God's own 'image.'" This insight, according to Rabbi
David Wolpe, is "Judaism's greatest gift to the world." In the
Midrash
''Midrash'' (;["midrash"]
. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. ; or ''midrashot' ...
Mekhilta D'Rabi Ishmael, the First of the
Ten Commandments
The Ten Commandments (), or the Decalogue (from Latin , from Ancient Greek , ), are religious and ethical directives, structured as a covenant document, that, according to the Hebrew Bible, were given by YHWH to Moses. The text of the Ten ...
is held in parallel with the Sixth Commandment: "I am the LORD your God," and "Do not murder." Harming a human is likened to attacking God.
''Imago dei'' and the physical body
Interpretation of the relationship between the ''imago dei'' and the physical body has undergone considerable change throughout the history of Jewish and Christian interpretation.
Old Testament scholarship
Old Testament scholars acknowledge that the Hebrew word for "image" in Genesis 1 (''selem'') often refers to an idol or physical image. While the physicality of the image may be of prime importance, because Ancient Israelites did not separate between the physical and spiritual within the person, it is appropriate to think of ''selem'' as originally incorporating both physical and spiritual components. Modern Christian commentators generally argue that the image of God is not related to physical appearance. John Walton writes "The Hebrew word selem (“image”) is a representative in physical form, not a representation of the physical appearance."
The Apostle Paul
The Apostle Paul at times displays both an appreciation for and a denial of the physical body as the image of God. An example of the importance of the physical body and the imago dei can be found in 2 Corinthians 4:4, in which Paul claims that Jesus Christ, in his entire being, is the image of God. Paul states that in proclaiming Jesus, the renewal of the image of God is experienced, not just eschatologically but also physically (cf. vv 10-12,16). In 2 Corinthians 4:10, Paul states that Christians are "always carrying the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be made visible in our bodies." However, in v. 16 he states that though the external body is "wasting away," the inner being is renewed each day. In sum, for Paul it seems that being restored in Christ and inheriting the Image of God leads to an actual corporeal change. As one changes internally, so too does one's body change. Thus, the change affected by Jesus envelopes one's entire being, including one's body.
Hellenistic influence on Christian interpretation
Many theologians from the patristic period to the present have relied heavily on an Aristotelian structure of the human as an inherently "rational animal," set apart from other beings. This view was combined with Pre-Socratic notions of the "divine spark" of reason. Reason was thought to be equated with immortality, and the body with mortality. J. R. Middleton contends that Christian theologians have historically relied more on extra-biblical philosophical and theological sources than the Genesis text itself. This led to an exclusion of the body and a more dualistic understanding of the image found in dominant Christian theology.
Pseudepigrapha
2 Enoch details how humans are made in God's image—namely, as representations of God's "own face." Although it can be argued the reference to God's "own face" is a metaphor for God's likeness, the passage carries the usage of "face" forward by emphasizing what is done to the physical human face is, in turn, done to the face of LORD—and, as is important for this writer, when one damages the face of another human being created in the very exact image of God's face, one damages God's face and will incur the expected consequences of such an offense.
:2 Enoch 44:1–3: The Lord with his own two hands created mankind; and in a facsimile of his own face. Small and great the Lord created. Whoever insults a person's face insults the face of the Lord; whoever treats a person's face with repugnance treats the face of the Lord with repugnance. Whoever treats with contempt the face of any person treats the face of the Lord with contempt. (There is) anger and judgement (for) whoever spits on a person's face.
Irenaeus and the body
Irenaeus
Irenaeus ( or ; ; ) was a Greeks, Greek bishop noted for his role in guiding and expanding Christianity, Christian communities in the southern regions of present-day France and, more widely, for the development of Christian theology by oppos ...
was unique for his time in that he places a great deal of emphasis on the physicality of the body and the image of God. In his ''
Against Heresies'', he writes "For by the hands of the Father, that is by the Son and the Holy Spirit, man, and not a part of man, was made in the likeness of God." For Irenaeus, the physical body is evident of the image of God. Further, because the Son is modeled after the Father, humans are likewise modeled after the Son and therefore bear a physical likeness to the Son. This implies that humans' likeness to God is revealed through embodied acts. Humans do not currently just exist in the pure image of God, because of the reality of sin. Irenaeus claims that one must "grow into" the likeness of God. This is done through knowingly and willingly acting through one's body. Because of sin, humans still require the Son's salvation, who is in the perfect image of God. Because humans are physical beings, their understanding of the fullness of the image of God did not become realized until the Son took physical form. Further, it is through the Son's physicality that he is able to properly instruct us on how to live and grow into the full image of God. Jesus, in becoming physically human, dying a human death, and then physically resurrected, "recapitulated," or fully revealed, what it means to be in the Image of God and therefore bears the full restoration of being in God's image. By so doing, Jesus becomes the new Adam and through the Holy Spirit restores the human race into its fullness.
Modern mystical interpretation
Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, a small population of theologians and church leaders have emphasized a need to return to early
monastic
Monasticism (; ), also called monachism or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual activities. Monastic life plays an important role in many Christian churches, especially ...
spirituality.
Thomas Merton,
Parker Palmer,
Henri Nouwen, and
Barbara Brown Taylor, among others, draw from aspects of mystical theology, central to the Christian desert
ascetics, in order to provide theological frameworks which positively view the physical body and the natural world. For early
mystics
A mystic is a person who practices mysticism, or a reference to a mystery, mystic craft, first hand-experience or the occult.
Mystic may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment Books and comics
* Ms. Mystic, comic book superheroine
* ''Mystic'' (c ...
, the ''imago dei'' included the physical body as well as the whole of creation. Upon seeing a void in the development of Western theology, modern writers have begun drawing upon works of third century monks the desert
mothers
A mother is the female parent of a child. A woman may be considered a mother by virtue of having given birth, by raising a child who may or may not be her biological offspring, or by supplying her ovum for fertilisation in the case of gestat ...
and
fathers
A father is the male parent of a child. Besides the paternal bonds of a father to his children, the father may have a parental, legal, and social relationship with the child that carries with it certain rights and obligations. A biological fathe ...
, as well as various gnostic systems, providing a more comprehensive view of the body in early Christian thought and reasons why modern theology should account for them.
Feminist interpretation
Similarly,
feminist
Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideology, ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social gender equality, equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that modern soci ...
thinkers have drawn attention to the alienation of the female experience in Christian thought. For two millennia, the female body has only been recognized as a means to separate women from men and to categorize the female body as inferior and the masculine as normative. In an attempt to eliminate such prejudice, feminist scholars have argued that the body is critical for self-understanding and relating to the world. Furthermore, bodily phenomena typically associated with sin and taboo (e.g. menstruation), have been redeemed as essential pieces of the female experience relatable to spirituality. Feminism attempts to make meaning out of the entire bodily experience of humanity, not just females, and to reconcile historical prejudices by relating to God through other frameworks.
''Imago dei ''and transhumanism
Negative view of transhumanism
The understanding of ''imago dei'' has come under new scrutiny when held up against the movement of
transhumanism
Transhumanism is a philosophical and intellectual movement that advocates the human enhancement, enhancement of the human condition by developing and making widely available new and future technologies that can greatly enhance longevity, cogni ...
which seeks to transform the human through technological means. Such transformation is achieved through pharmacological enhancement,
genetic manipulation
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including th ...
,
nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers (nm). At this scale, commonly known as the nanoscale, surface area and quantum mechanical effects become important in describing propertie ...
,
cybernetics
Cybernetics is the transdisciplinary study of circular causal processes such as feedback and recursion, where the effects of a system's actions (its outputs) return as inputs to that system, influencing subsequent action. It is concerned with ...
, and computer simulation. Transhumanist thought is grounded in optimistic
Enlightenment ideals which look forward to the
Technological Singularity
The technological singularity—or simply the singularity—is a hypothetical point in time at which technological growth becomes uncontrollable and irreversible, resulting in unforeseeable consequences for human civilization. According to the ...
, a point at which humans engineer the next phase of human evolutionary development.
Transhumanism's assertion that the human being exist within the evolutionary processes and that humans should use their technological capabilities to intentionally accelerate these processes is an affront to some conceptions of ''imago dei'' within
Christian tradition
Christian tradition is a collection of traditions consisting of practices or beliefs associated with Christianity. Many churches have traditional practices, such as particular patterns of worship or rites, that developed over time. Deviations from ...
. In response, these traditions have erected boundaries in order to establish the appropriate use of transhumanistic technologies using the distinction between
therapeutic and
enhancement technologies. Therapeutic uses of technology such as
cochlear implants,
prosthetic limbs, and
psychotropic drugs have become commonly accepted in religious circles as means of addressing human frailty. Nevertheless, these acceptable technologies can also be used to elevate human ability. Further, they correct the human form according to a constructed sense of normalcy. Thus the distinction between therapy and enhancement is ultimately questionable when addressing ethical dilemmas.
Human enhancement has come under heavy criticism from Christians; especially the
Vatican
Vatican may refer to:
Geography
* Vatican City, an independent city-state surrounded by Rome, Italy
* Vatican Hill, in Rome, namesake of Vatican City
* Ager Vaticanus, an alluvial plain in Rome
* Vatican, an unincorporated community in the ...
which condemned enhancement as "radically immoral" stating that humans do not have full right over their biological form. Christians concerns of humans "playing God" are ultimately accusations of
hubris, a criticism that pride leads to moral folly, and a theme which has been interpreted from the Genesis accounts of Adam and Eve and the Tower of Babel. In these stories, God was in no real danger of losing power; however, Patrick D. Hopkins has argued that, in light of technological advancement, the hubris critique is changing into a
Promethean critique. According to Hopkins, "In Greek myth, when Prometheus stole fire, he actually stole something. He stole a power that previously only the gods had."
Positive view of transhumanism
Within
progressive circles of
Christian tradition
Christian tradition is a collection of traditions consisting of practices or beliefs associated with Christianity. Many churches have traditional practices, such as particular patterns of worship or rites, that developed over time. Deviations from ...
transhumanism
Transhumanism is a philosophical and intellectual movement that advocates the human enhancement, enhancement of the human condition by developing and making widely available new and future technologies that can greatly enhance longevity, cogni ...
has not presented a threat but a positive challenge. Some theologians, such as Philip Hefner and Stephen Garner, have seen the transhumanist movement as a vehicle by which to re-imagine the ''imago dei''. Many of these theologians follow in the footsteps of
Donna Haraway's "
Cyborg Manifesto". The manifesto explores the hybridity of the human condition through the metaphor of the
cyborg
A cyborg (, a portmanteau of ''cybernetics, cybernetic'' and ''organism'') is a being with both Organic matter, organic and biomechatronic body parts. The term was coined in 1960 by Manfred Clynes and Nathan S. Kline.[popular culture
Popular culture (also called pop culture or mass culture) is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of cultural practice, practices, beliefs, artistic output (also known as popular art ]f. pop art
F is the sixth letter of the Latin alphabet.
F may also refer to:
Science and technology Mathematics
* F or f, the number 15 (number), 15 in hexadecimal and higher positional systems
* ''p'F'q'', the hypergeometric function
* F-distributi ...
or mass art, sometimes contraste ...
. For Garner, these "narratives of apprehension" found in popular movies and television are produced by "conflicting
ontologies
In information science, an ontology encompasses a representation, formal naming, and definitions of the categories, properties, and relations between the concepts, data, or entities that pertain to one, many, or all domains of discourse. More ...
of the person." The cyborg represents a crossing and blurring of boundaries that challenges preconceived notions of
personal identity
Personal identity is the unique numerical identity of a person over time. Discussions regarding personal identity typically aim to determine the necessary and sufficient conditions under which a person at one time and a person at another time ...
. Therefore, it is understandable that a person's first reaction to the image of a cyborg would be apprehension. For Garner, the wider scope of Haraway's "cultural cyborg" can be characterized by the term "
hybridity
Hybridity, in its most basic sense, refers to mixture. The term originates from biology and was subsequently employed in linguistics and in racial theory in the nineteenth century. Young, Robert. ''Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and ...
".
According to
Elaine Graham, hybridity does not only problematize traditional conception of human as the image of God, but also makes terms like "
natural
Nature is an inherent character or constitution, particularly of the ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the laws, elements and phenomena of the physical world, including life. Although humans are part ...
" problematic. There is no longer a clear line between the old dualities of human/machine, human/environment, and technology/environment.
Brenda Brasher thinks that this revelation of the hybridity of
human nature
Human nature comprises the fundamental dispositions and characteristics—including ways of Thought, thinking, feeling, and agency (philosophy), acting—that humans are said to have nature (philosophy), naturally. The term is often used to denote ...
presents insurmountable problems for scripturally-based theological metaphors bound in "pastoral and
agrarian imagery."
Garner, however, sees a multitude of metaphors within Christian tradition and scripture that already speak to this reality. He identifies the three major areas of hybridity in
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
as
eschatology
Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of Contemporary era, present age, human history, or the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic and non-Abrah ...
,
Christology
In Christianity, Christology is a branch of Christian theology, theology that concerns Jesus. Different denominations have different opinions on questions such as whether Jesus was human, divine, or both, and as a messiah what his role would b ...
, and
theological anthropology. In eschatology, Christians are called to be both in the world but not of the world. In Christology, Jesus Christ is a cyborg with both divine and human natures. Finally, in theological anthropology, the hybridity of human nature is seen in the concept of the image of God itself, since humans are both formed "from the dust" and stamped with the divine image.
See also
*
B'Tselem
*
Be fruitful and multiply
*
Christian humanism
*
Human dignity
*
Inward Light
Inward light, Light of God, Light of Christ, Christ within, That of God, Spirit of God within us, Light within, and inner light are related phrases commonly used within the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) as metaphors for Christ's light ...
*
Self-expression values
Self-expression values are part of a Value system, core value dimension in the modernization process. Self-expression is a cluster of Value (personal and cultural), values that include social toleration, tolerance, life satisfaction, public expr ...
*
Theomorphism
Further reading
* ''The Personhood of God: Biblical Theology, Human Faith And the Divine Image'',
Yochanan MuffsLibrary Thing: The Personhood of God
/ref>
* David J.A. Clines,
The Image of God in Man
," '' Tyndale Bulletin'' 19 (1968): 53–103.
* N.N. Townsend, "'In the Image of God': Humanity's Role within Creation and Ecological Responsibility", VPlater (online modules on Catholic Social Teaching)
Module A, ''Living Life to the Full'', unit 3
*
References
Bibliography
*
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{{authority control
Christian anthropology
Jewish theology
Christian terminology
Judeo-Christian topics
Genesis 1
Sufism