''Il Cromuele'' (''The Cromwell'') is a

tragedy A tragedy is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a tragic hero, main character or cast of characters. Traditionally, the intention of tragedy is to invoke an accompanying catharsi ...

in five

acts The Acts of the Apostles (, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; ) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire. Acts and the Gospel of Luke make up a two-par ...

, released in 1671. It was conceived and written by

Girolamo Graziani Girolamo Graziani ( , ; 1 October 1604 – 12 September 1675) was an Italian poet and diplomat. Graziani was one of the most famous poets of the 17th century, but his fame didn't survive him. During his life he was appreciated mainly for his epi ...

, through the 1660s, in

Modena Modena (, ; ; ; ; ) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) on the south side of the Po Valley, in the Province of Modena, in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy. It has 184,739 inhabitants as of 2025. A town, and seat of an archbis ...

, during the troubled reign of

Laura Martinozzi Laura Martinozzi, Duchess of Modena and Reggio (22 April 1639 – 19 July 1687), niece of the Chief minister of France Jules Cardinal Mazarin and one of the '' Mazarinettes'', by marriage became Duchess consort of Modena and Reggio, and followin ...

Genesis

The first information on the composition of the ''Il Cromuele'' appears in the preface to Graziani's ''Varie Poesie e Prose'' (1662). Since 1666 the writing of ''Il Cromuele'' is accompanied by an extensive correspondence with

Jean Chapelain Jean Chapelain (4 December 1595 – 22 February 1674) was a French poet and critic during the '' Grand Siècle'', best known for his role as an organizer and founding member of the . Chapelain acquired considerable prestige as a literary critic, ...

, as

Graziani Graziani is an Italian surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Achille Graziani (1839–1918), Italian archaeologist * Ariel Graziani (born 1971), South American footballer * Augusto Graziani (1933–2014), Italian economist * Ercole Gr ...

was waged by Colbert on behalf of

Louis The Great Louis I, also Louis the Great (; ; ) or Louis the Hungarian (; 5 March 132610 September 1382), was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 and King of Poland from 1370. He was the first child of Charles I of Hungary and his wife, Elizabeth of P ...

Plot

Henrighetta,

Queen Queen most commonly refers to: * Queen regnant, a female monarch of a kingdom * Queen consort, the wife of a reigning king * Queen (band), a British rock band Queen or QUEEN may also refer to: Monarchy * Queen dowager, the widow of a king * Q ...

of England has escaped from Cromuele, the

tyrant A tyrant (), in the modern English usage of the word, is an absolute ruler who is unrestrained by law, or one who has usurped a legitimate ruler's sovereignty. Often portrayed as cruel, tyrants may defend their positions by resorting to ...

usurper A usurper is an illegitimate or controversial claimant to power, often but not always in a monarchy. In other words, one who takes the power of a country, city, or established region for oneself, without any formal or legal right to claim it a ...

who imprisoned her husband king Carlo in the

Tower of London The Tower of London, officially His Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic citadel and castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamle ...

. After useless

petitions A petition is a request to do something, most commonly addressed to a government official or public entity. Petitions to a deity are a form of prayer called supplication. In the colloquial sense, a petition is a document addressed to an officia ...

to the Government of

Edinburgh Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. The city is located in southeast Scotland and is bounded to the north by the Firth of Forth and to the south by the Pentland Hills. Edinburgh ...

and to the

Republic of the Seven United Netherlands The United Provinces of the Netherlands, commonly referred to in historiography as the Dutch Republic, was a confederation that existed from 1579 until the Batavian Revolution in 1795. It was a predecessor state of the present-day Netherland ...

, she has sailed towards France to ask for help by her nephew

Louis XIV LouisXIV (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 September 16381 September 1715), also known as Louis the Great () or the Sun King (), was King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72 years and 110 days is the List of longest-reign ...

. She is with Delmira, a young Irish girl just known during the trip. The two women, for their security, are travelling with male clothes, as

Dutch Dutch or Nederlands commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands ** Dutch people as an ethnic group () ** Dutch nationality law, history and regulations of Dutch citizenship () ** Dutch language () * In specific terms, i ...

Merchants. During the voyage, their ship has been wrecked, and their lifeboat was pushed by the wind to

English coast The English Coast is a portion of the coast of Antarctica between the northern tip of Rydberg Peninsula and the Buttress Nunataks, on the west side of Palmer Land. To the west is Bryan Coast, and northward runs Rymill Coast east of Alexander ...

, from where they reached London under the identities of Henrico (Henry) and Edmondo (Edmund). In this guise, they have been housed in the

Palace A palace is a large residence, often serving as a royal residence or the home for a head of state or another high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome whi ...

of Odoardo (Edward) and Anna Hide, a family ''

in pectore (Latin for 'in the breast/heart') is a term used in the Catholic Church for an action, decision, or document which is meant to be kept secret. It is most often used when there is a papal appointment to the College of Cardinals without a public ...

'' still

loyalist Loyalism, in the United Kingdom, its overseas territories and its former colonies, refers to the allegiance to the British crown or the United Kingdom. In North America, the most common usage of the term refers to loyalty to the British Cr ...

despite it shows fidelity to the

Cromuele. The beauty and the singing qualities of Edmondo/Delmira, have meant that the two women were both introduced in

Whitehall Whitehall is a road and area in the City of Westminster, Central London, England. The road forms the first part of the A roads in Zone 3 of the Great Britain numbering scheme, A3212 road from Trafalgar Square to Chelsea, London, Chelsea. It ...

to attend a major

Costume party A costume party (American English) or fancy dress party (other varieties of English) is a type of party, common in contemporary Anglosphere, Anglo culture, in which many of the guests are dressed in costume, usually depicting a fictional or st ...

that Cromuele has ordered, to distract Londoners from the consequences of his despotic government and a looming plague. So far the

Backstory A backstory, background story, background, or legend is a set of events invented for a plot, preceding and leading up to that plot. In acting, it is the history of the character before the drama begins, and is created during the actor's prepara ...

. With the arrival at

Edmondo/Delmira and Henrico/Henrighetta tragedy begins. It's the eve of King's

decapitation Decapitation is the total separation of the head from the body. Such an injury is invariably fatal to humans and all vertebrate animals, since it deprives the brain of oxygenated blood by way of severing through the jugular vein and common c ...

. The

death sentence Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty and formerly called judicial homicide, is the state-sanctioned killing of a person as punishment for actual or supposed misconduct. The sentence ordering that an offender be punished in s ...

has not yet been issued. Elisabetta (Elizabeth), the wife of Cromuele, wants her husband to postpone the decision because she's secretly in love with the King. Her

confidant The confidant ( or ; feminine: confidante, same pronunciation) is a character in a story whom a protagonist confides in and trusts. Confidants may be other principal characters, characters who command trust by virtue of their position such as ...

Orinda, an elder

widow A widow (female) or widower (male) is a person whose spouse has Death, died and has usually not remarried. The male form, "widower", is first attested in the 14th century, by the 19th century supplanting "widow" with reference to men. The adjecti ...

sensitive to love affairs, combines her clandestine meeting with Carlo within the prison, where Elisabetta will be able to offer him

clemency A pardon is a government decision to allow a person to be relieved of some or all of the legal consequences resulting from a criminal conviction. A pardon may be granted before or after conviction for the crime, depending on the laws of the j ...

in change of love. To arrange such an encounter, Orinda asks for help to Edmondo/Delmira (of which, thinking she's a boy, fell in love) and to Henrico/Henrighetta, reassured by their seeming foreigner. The two

heroines A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or strength. The original hero type of classical epics did such things for the sake of ...

take this opportunity to free Carlo, with the help of Odoardo and Anna Hide, to which in the meantime have revealed their true identities. But the discovery of the

conspiracy A conspiracy, also known as a plot, ploy, or scheme, is a secret plan or agreement between people (called conspirers or conspirators) for an unlawful or harmful purpose, such as murder, treason, or corruption, especially with a political motivat ...

precipitates the

fate Destiny, sometimes also called fate (), is a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predeterminism, predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual. Fate Although often used interchangeably, the words wiktionary ...

of Carlo which is executed at dawn as well as Edmondo/Delmira who, dying, has time to prove her identity, and through some details of her story, Orinda supposes to recognize her daughter, sent abroad when very young, to save her from a

prophecy In religion, mythology, and fiction, a prophecy is a message that has been communicated to a person (typically called a ''prophet'') by a supernatural entity. Prophecies are a feature of many cultures and belief systems and usually contain di ...

of die at home by relatives. Overwhelmed with grief, Orinda commits suicide on what she believes to be her daughter's corpse. After the

regicide Regicide is the purposeful killing of a monarch or sovereign of a polity and is often associated with the usurpation of power. A regicide can also be the person responsible for the killing. The word comes from the Latin roots of ''regis'' ...

. Cromuele can finally sleep, but his sleep is interrupted by a

nightmare A nightmare, also known as a bad dream, Retrieved 11 July 2016. is an unpleasant dream that can cause a strong emotional response from the mind, typically fear but also despair, anxiety, disgust or sadness. The dream may contain situations o ...

in which Mary Stuart heralds the end of his power. Upon awakening, Cromuele receives the glad tidings of the existence of a newborn daughter believed dead, but actually still alive because exchanged with Orinda's one while in

bassinet A bassinet, bassinette, or cradle is a bed specifically for babies from birth to about four months. Bassinets are generally designed to work with fixed legs or caster wheels, while cradles are generally designed to provide a rocking or glidi ...

. But his happiness is short-lived because the

anagnorisis Anagnorisis (; ) is a moment in a play or other work when a character makes a critical discovery. Anagnorisis originally meant recognition in its Greek context, not only of a person but also of what that person stood for. Anagnorisis was the her ...

plunges him into utter turmoil, when he discovers that his beloved daughter was actually the Edmondo/Delmira he has just executed.

''Il Cromuele'' between history and fiction

* With the Restoration, on the anniversary of the

the corpse of

Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell (25 April 15993 September 1658) was an English statesman, politician and soldier, widely regarded as one of the most important figures in British history. He came to prominence during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, initially ...

had been exhumed and subjected to

Posthumous execution __NOTOC__ Posthumous execution is the ritual or ceremonial mutilation of an already dead body as a punishment. Dissection as a punishment in England Some Christians believed that the resurrection of the dead on Judgment Day requires that the body ...

. In the year of the publication of Il Cromuele, his

head A head is the part of an organism which usually includes the ears, brain, forehead, cheeks, chin, eyes, nose, and mouth, each of which aid in various sensory functions such as sight, hearing, smell, and taste. Some very simple ani ...

was still exposed in

Westminster Westminster is the main settlement of the City of Westminster in Central London, Central London, England. It extends from the River Thames to Oxford Street and has many famous landmarks, including the Palace of Westminster, Buckingham Palace, ...

. The event is evoked through the

premonition Premonition(s) or The Premonition may refer to: Film and television * "Premonition" (''Alfred Hitchcock Presents''), an episode of ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' (1955) * "The Premonition" (''The Outer Limits''), an episode of the original ve ...

of Mary Stuart. * Along with

(Cromuele),

Charles I Charles I may refer to: Kings and emperors * Charlemagne (742–814), numbered Charles I in the lists of Holy Roman Emperors and French kings * Charles I of Anjou (1226–1285), also king of Albania, Jerusalem, Naples and Sicily * Charles I of ...

(Carlo) and their respective wives

Elizabeth Bourchier Elizabeth Cromwell (née Bourchier; 1598 –1665) was the wife of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, and the mother of Richard Cromwell, the second Lord Protector. Family and marriage Eli ...

(Elisabetta) and

Henrietta Maria of France Henrietta Maria of France ( French: ''Henriette Marie''; 25 November 1609 – 10 September 1669) was Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland from her marriage to King Charles I on 13 June 1625 until his execution on 30 January 1649. She was ...

(Henrighetta), we find

Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon (18 February 16099 December 1674) was an English statesman, lawyer, diplomat and historian who served as chief advisor to Charles I during the First English Civil War, and Lord Chancellor to Charles II fro ...

(Odoardo) which after giving initial support for

Commonwealth A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the 15th century. Originally a phrase (the common-wealth ...

, changed his party back to

Cavaliers The term ''Cavalier'' () was first used by Roundheads as a term of abuse for the wealthier royalist supporters of Charles I of England and his son Charles II of England, Charles II during the English Civil War, the Interregnum (England), Int ...

, and his daughter

Anne Hyde Anne Hyde (12 March 1637 – 31 March 1671) was the first wife of James, Duke of York, who later became King James II and VII. Anne was the daughter of a member of the English gentry— Edward Hyde (later created Earl of Clarendon)—and met ...

(Anna), first wife of James II of which in fact in the drama appears in love. Also appearing in the play, or are mentioned in their proper political position, generals of the

New Model Army The New Model Army or New Modelled Army was a standing army formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians during the First English Civil War, then disbanded after the Stuart Restoration in 1660. It differed from other armies employed in the 1639 t ...

such as

John Lambert John Lambert may refer to: *John Lambert (martyr) (died 1538), English Protestant martyred during the reign of Henry VIII *John Lambert (general) (1619–1684), Parliamentary general in the English Civil War *John Lambert of Creg Clare (''fl.'' c. ...

(Lamberto),

Henry Ireton Henry Ireton (baptised 3 November 1611; died 26 November 1651) was an English general in the Parliamentarian army during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, and a son-in-law of Oliver Cromwell. He died of disease outside Limerick in November 165 ...

(Iretone), Thomas Harrison (Harrisone) and

Thomas Fairfax Sir Thomas Fairfax (17 January 1612 – 12 November 1671) was an English army officer and politician who commanded the New Model Army from 1645 to 1650 during the English Civil War. Because of his dark hair, he was known as "Black Tom" to his l ...

(Farfasse). * Even the two

characters Character or Characters may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''Character'' (novel), a 1936 Dutch novel by Ferdinand Bordewijk * ''Characters'' (Theophrastus), a classical Greek set of character sketches attributed to Theoph ...

only required by the fiction, and therefore presented only with their first name, have a precise reference to history or to contemporary

chronicle A chronicle (, from Greek ''chroniká'', from , ''chrónos'' – "time") is a historical account of events arranged in chronological order, as in a timeline. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and local events ...

. The death of Delmira caused by her father Cromuele, plunges him in total despair, and Orinda elderly widow but hypersensitive to matters of love, becomes herself a victim of love, even if Platonic, for a woman. They both recalled the viewer and the contemporary reader to real people: The first is a direct quote to the favorite daughter of

Cromwell Oliver Cromwell (25 April 15993 September 1658) was an English statesman, politician and soldier, widely regarded as one of the most important figures in British history. He came to prominence during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, initially a ...

Elizabeth Claypole Elizabeth Claypolealso ''Cleypole'' and ''Claypoole'' (Noble and Firth DNB) (''née'' Cromwell; 2 July 1629 – 6 August 1658) was the second daughter of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, and ...

that had broken off relations with her father not forgiving him his murderous methods. Elizabeth died when she was 29, as well as Delmira, and her death after a long and painful illness, seemed having given the fatal blow to the health of her father, who actually died a month later. The episode struck the imagination of his contemporaries who found in it a form of

nemesis In ancient Greek religion and myth, Nemesis (; ) also called Rhamnousia (or Rhamnusia; ), was the goddess who personified retribution for the sin of hubris: arrogance before the gods. Etymology The name ''Nemesis'' is derived from the Greek ...

for

committed. The second, Orinda is a direct reference to the

Welsh poet Welsh poetry refers to poetry of the Welsh people or nation. This includes poetry written in Welsh, poetry written in English by Welsh or Wales-based poets, poetry written in Wales in other languages or poetry by Welsh poets around the world. ...

Katherine Philips Katherine or Catherine Philips (; 1 January 1631/222 June 1664), also known as "The Matchless Orinda", was an Anglo-Welsh royalist poet, translator, and woman of letters. She achieved renown as a translator of Pierre Corneille's '' Pom ...

, whose poetic production concerned only about love, marriage, on love relationships in general, arousing interest and scandal for her theories on Love between women, and whose pen name was The Matchless Orinda.

Performance history

The

Preface __NOTOC__ A preface () or proem () is an introduction to a book or other literature, literary work written by the work's author. An introductory essay written by a different person is a ''foreword'' and precedes an author's preface. The preface o ...

to the second edition of ''Il Cromuele'' (1673), shows no trace of its

premiere A premiere, also spelled première, (from , ) is the debut (first public presentation) of a work, i.e. play, film, dance, musical composition, or even a performer in that work. History Raymond F. Betts attributes the introduction of the ...

. There is also no trace in the rich

documentation Documentation is any communicable material that is used to describe, explain or instruct regarding some attributes of an object, system or procedure, such as its parts, assembly, installation, maintenance, and use. As a form of knowledge managem ...

in the

Este Este may refer to: Geography * Este (woreda), a district in Ethiopia * Este, Veneto, a town in Italy * Este (Málaga), a district in Spain * Este (river), a river in Germany * Este (São Pedro), a parish in Portugal * Este (São Mamede), a p ...

National Archives National archives are the archives of a country. The concept evolved in various nations at the dawn of modernity based on the impact of nationalism upon bureaucratic processes of paperwork retention. Conceptual development From the Middle Ages i ...

. The cause of the probable non-representation is the

dynastic marriage Royal intermarriage is the practice of members of ruling dynasties marrying into other reigning families. It was more commonly done in the past as part of strategic diplomacy for national interest. Although sometimes enforced by legal requiremen ...

which occurred in 1673 (then only two years after the first publication) between

Maria Beatrice d'Este Mary of Modena (; ) was Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland as the second wife of James VII and II. A devout Roman Catholic, Mary married the widower James, who was then the younger brother and heir presumptive of Charles II. She was devo ...

and James Stuart, the latter newly widowed by that

with whom, in the ''Il Cromuele'', he appears in love. A presence unwieldy for Graziani, who as Secretary of State, was keeping the interests of the

House of Este The House of Este ( , , ) is a European dynasty of North Italian origin whose members ruled parts of Italy and Germany for many centuries. The original House of Este's elder branch, which is known as the House of Welf, included dukes of Bavaria ...

in the marriage. In contemporary times, ''Il Cromuele'' has been represented in

Piacenza Piacenza (; ; ) is a city and (municipality) in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy, and the capital of the province of Piacenza, eponymous province. As of 2022, Piacenza is the ninth largest city in the region by population, with more ...

in the theatre season 1996–97 by

Company A company, abbreviated as co., is a Legal personality, legal entity representing an association of legal people, whether Natural person, natural, Juridical person, juridical or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members ...

''Gli Infidi Lumi'', directed by Stefano Tomassini, music by Massimo Berzolla.Sheerpluck – data base of contemporary guitar music
/ref>

Editions

* Bologna, Manolessi, 1671 in −4° * Modena, Soliani, 1671 in −12° * Bologna, Manolessi, 1673 in −4° * iacenza Infidi Lumi Edizioni, 1997 (out of print edition, theater adaptation by Stefano Tomassini) * Pisa, Edizioni della Normale, 2011, in: ''Storie Inglesi, l'Inghilterra vista dall'Italia tra storia e romanzo (XVIII sec.)'' edited by Clizia Carminati e Stefano Villani, pagg. 297 – 470.

Bibliography

* Emilio Bertana, ''L'irregolarità del teatro profano: il «Cromuele» di Girolamo Graziani'', in: Storia dei generi letterari italiani, la Tragedia, Milano, Vallardi, 916? pages 200–10. * Piero Di Nepi, ''Girolamo Graziani e la politica come arte: «Cromuele»'', "F.M. Annali dell'Istituto di Filologia Moderna dell'Università di Roma, 2-1979, Roma, 1981, pages 113–24 (see Fulvio Bianchi in: "La Rassegna della Letteratura italiana" diretta da Walter Binni, sept.dec. 1982, pages 620–1). * Rosa Galli Pellegrini, ''La Tragédie Italienne à l'école du classicisme Français: le rôle de Chapelain dans la genèse du "Cromuele" de Graziani'', “Quaderni del Dipartimento di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Moderne, Università di Genova”, 2–1987, peges 35–57. * Maurizio Fasce, Introduzione e note alle edizione de ''Il Cromuele'', con la collaborazione di Carlo Alberto Girotto, ''Storie Inglesi, l'Inghilterra vista dall'Italia tra storia e romanzo (XVIII sec.)'', edited by Clizia Carminati e Stefano Villani, Edizioni della Normale, Pisa, 2011, pagg. 297 – 330.

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cromuele 1671 plays Plays about the English Civil War Biographical plays about British royalty Biographical plays about politicians Cultural depictions of Oliver Cromwell Cultural depictions of Charles I of England Cultural depictions of Mary, Queen of Scots Anne Hyde Cultural depictions of Henrietta Maria of France Plays about queens