Iguvium

Gubbio () is an Italian town and ''comune'' in the far northeastern part of the Italian province of Perugia (Umbria). It is located on the lowest slope of Mt. Ingino, a small mountain of the Apennines.

History

Prehistory

The oldest evidence of human habitation in the Gubbio valley dates back to the Middle Palaeolithic, but only during the Neolithic period (6000-3000 BCE) does the earliest evidence of relatively permanent settlements emerge. Agriculture and animal husbandry were introduced to the valley around the 6th to 5th millennium BCE. Stone tools (made of local chert) and pottery have been found from this period. The styles and decorations of the pottery have a resemblance to contemporary finds from Marche and Lazio. At the excavated site of San Marco, east of Gubbio, archaeologists found a ditch with various almost-intact ceramic vessels, which may indicate a deliberate deposit as part of some sort of ritual.

Little evidence has been found from the Chalcolithic period (3500-2300 BCE) in the Gubbio valley.

Bronze Age

During the Middle to Late Bronze Age (1400-1200 BCE), there appears to have been a significant increase in population throughout the region. Beginning around 1400 BCE, there appears to have been a major shift in the settlement pattern in the Gubbio valley: from dispersed habitation of the valley below to "the occupation of a single, strategically placed, upland site": Monte Ingino. This site, on a hilltop overlooking present-day Gubbio, was "probably chosen because of its naturally defended position, good visibility of surrounding terrain, and access to surrounding pasture". The settlement at Monte Ingino was polyfocal, with people inhabiting sites on the slopes below the summit (such as Via dei Consoli and Vescovado), while the mountaintop itself, with its harsher climate, was only occupied seasonally, during spring. The valley below was under human use, as indicated by "sporadic finds", but no actual settlement existed there.

The summit of Monte Ingino was "undoubtedly" the focus of ritual activity. An enormous amount of archaeological material has been found here, including some 30,000 pottery fragments and more than 25,000 animal bone fragments. These appear to have been part of some consumption ritual: a huge feast that served as a "communal display" to neighboring communities, who would have been able to see the smoke from the cooking fire; this ritual may have been performed by specific individuals "while placed in this outpost above the territory over which they had to maintain control". Later, in the Archaic period, this ritual appears to have become much more formalized.

Later, around 1200-1100 BCE, another settlement area was established on the neighboring hilltop of Monte Asciano. This site served as a less prominent ritual center, and may have also been covered by a settlement, although only one hut has been excavated here. Occupation of Monte Asciano continued until about 950 BCE, when the local population all moved to the slopes below.

The Gubbio valley in the Bronze Age would have still been covered by "a moist woodland environment which remained relatively cool and moist during the summer months". This period is probably the first time when people started cutting down significant parts of these woods to clear space for agriculture. Agricultural technology at the time was probably similar to that of Northern Europe during the Iron Age, with light wooden ards pulled by animals. Barley may have been cultivated on some of the gentler slopes near Monte Ingino and Monte Asciano. Pigs, whose bones make up a large portion of the bones found, could have been kept close to the settlements, where they would have readily consumed household food scraps, and then also taken to local woodlands, which would have been a great food source for them. Cows, whose bones are rather uncommon, may have also been kept; they could have been pastured in either naturally open areas or artificial clearings. Sheep and goats were most likely kept and grazed in the uplands around the settlements (sheep bones are also fairly common among the bone samples).

Woodland resources would have been abundant due to the more extensive forest cover. Red deer are attested from small amounts at Monte Ingino; roe deer are attested in small amounts at both Monte Ingino and Monte Asciano. Nuts and berries could have been foraged from the woodlands, as well as smaller game, and freshwater fish could be caught either in the perennial mountain stream between Monte Ingino and Monte Foce, or in the bigger streams (Saonda and Assino) down in the valley. Firewood would have been collected in these woodlands and brought back up to the sites in the hills, and flint would have been obtained from cobbles in the stream beds. Water supplies were probably derived either from the natural springs in the hills or from the seasonal streams between the hills.

Iron Age

Monte Asciano remained inhabited in the early Iron Age (1200-1000 BCE), and the sites of Vescovado and Sant'Agostino primarily date from this period as well.

Ancient

Archaic period

By the Archaic period, the main area of settlement had shifted to the lower slopes of Monte Asciano, including Sant'Agostino. Monte Ascoli itself was used as a religious sanctuary during this period. Finds from this period include a drystone platform, dozens of bronze figurines dated to between the 5th-3rd centuries BCE, and an ''aes rude'' probably dating from the 3rd century BCE.

Umbrian period

As ''Ikuvium'', it was an important town of the Umbri in pre-Roman times, made famous for the discovery there in 1444 of the Iguvine Tablets, a set of bronze tablets that together constitute the largest surviving text in the Umbrian language.

According to Dorica Manconi, pre-Roman Ikuvium was located in a "well-defined" area in the vicinity of the present-day city. It was "bounded by the cemeteries (S. Benedetto, Via Eraclito, etc.), between the river Camignano, the continuation of Via dei Consoli, Viale Parruccini and the wall so-called "del vallo", extending over about 34 hectares and surrounded by a huge area of land to be used for agriculture and stock-farming". This is supported by a high number of archaeological finds in the area, including a '' vernice nera'' kiln possibly from the 3rd or 2nd century BCE as well as a necropolis at San Biagio. A number of smaller rural settlements also existed throughout the valley, dependent on the main town; the two best-known archaeologically were at Mocaiana and Casa Regni.

Gubbio is one of only two Umbrian towns known to have minted its own coins before the Roman conquest (the other was Todi).

Roman period

After the Roman conquest in the 2nd century BC – it kept its name as ''Iguvium'' – the city remained important, as attested by its Roman theatre, the second-largest surviving in the world.

Originally, Gubbio held strategic importance as controlling a major highway through the mountains. However, when the Via Flaminia was constructed 223 BCE, it bypassed Gubbio by several miles to the east. This caused Gubbio to lose much of its significance, and it declined gradually throughout the Imperial period.

After the Social War, the people of Gubbio were enrolled in the Roman tribe Clustumina.

The date of Gubbio's theatre is unknown, although its size, its layout, and the rustication on the exterior suggest that it was built during or after the reign of Claudius. The remains of a large structure nearby may represent a mill of some sort. The Roman temple of the Guastaglia, within present-day Gubbio, has had its foundations excavated, and an inscription originally in the theatre (now in the Palazzo dei Consoli) records that the '' quattuorvir'' Gnaeus Satrius Rufus financed the restoration of the theatre and of a temple of Diana at Gubbio in the 1st century CE.

A funerary inscription records one Vittorius Rufus as " avispex extispicus sacerdos publicus et privatus" — that is, someone who interpreted bird flight and entrails, as well as managed public and private rituals — and another lists a Sestus Vetiarius Surus with a similar title. This is unusual because this profession was not very common in the Roman world, but it had been important among the Umbri and Etruscans (and featured prominently in the Iguvine tablets), suggesting that these religious practices continued locally. In the Imperial period, the cults of Isis and her son Harpocrates were also imported from Egypt.

Middle ages

11th-13th centuries

Gubbio became very powerful at the beginning of the Middle Ages. The town sent 1000 knights to fight in the First Crusade under the lead of Girolamo of the prominent Gabrielli family, who, according to an undocumented local tradition, were the first to reach the Church of the Holy Sepulchre when Jerusalem was seized (1099).

In terms of vegetation and land use, data is largely not available until the early medieval period. In the 11th century, cultivation was limited to the land immediately around the city and around the ''curtis'' of the individual feudal castles. Toward the beginning of the 11th century, "the combination of demographic growth and the declining control by feudal lords over their land" led to a more favorable contract for peasants such as '' enfiteusi''. As a result, woodland was cleared to make room for farmland, pastures were converted to farmland, and uncultivated areas were also put to more intensive agriculture. This agriculture included cereal crops, vines, olives, and fruit trees. Mixed cultivation, such as wheat interspersed with rows of vines, was introduced and especially well suited for hilly areas. Watermills had been introduced by this point (at least) and were an important part of the rural economy.

The following centuries in Gubbio were turbulent, featuring wars against the neighbouring towns of Umbria. One of these wars saw the miraculous intervention of its bishop, Ubald, who secured Gubbio an overwhelming victory (1151) and a period of prosperity. In the struggles of Guelphs and Ghibellines, the Gabrielli, such as the Cante dei Gabrielli (c. 1260–1335), fought for the Guelph faction, supporting the papacy. As Podestà of Florence, Cante exiled Dante Alighieri, ensuring his own lasting notoriety.

In the 13th century (1200s), there was "further economic expansion"; Gubbio had to expand its city walls and construct new buildings to accommodate a growing population. This was accompanied by opening up more land for agriculture, especially in hilly areas, and even the upper hills. Documents from this period mention place names suggesting woodlands (Cerqueto, Monte Acera, Colle Cerrone, Cerquattino, Sterpeto) indicate the expansion of farmland during this period.

14th-15th centuries

In the early 1300s, there was a major population increase; in addition to vines, olives, and fruit trees, new crops were introduced: flax and hemp. Landlords were now based in the city, and peasants had greater autonomy over the land; at the same time, the population growth meant that they had to expand cultivation into increasingly poor soil areas in order to support the larger urban population. Then the plague happened in 1348, killing almost half the population. Cultivation significantly decreased, and woodlands regrew. The rural economy shifted more toward animal husbandry, and farmland was turned into pasture. These trends continued into the early 1400s.

In 1350 Giovanni Gabrielli, count of Borgovalle seized power as the lord of Gubbio. His rule was short, and he was forced to hand over the town to Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz, representing the Papal states (1354).

A few years later, Gabriello Gabrielli, the bishop of Gubbio, also proclaimed himself lord of Gubbio (). Betrayed by a group of noblemen which included many of his relatives, the bishop was forced to leave the town and seek refuge at his home castle at Cantiano.

In the 1400s, there was a major economic revival of the city of Gubbio, and accordingly the demand for grain and other agricultural produce increased. Again, land was cleared for cultivation, and peasants were encouraged to do so by the Comune: at one point, peasants were given an extremely favorable contract: a peasant who cleared more than three ''mine'' in a single year was granted ownership of that land as well as its harvest. The Comune issued an edict in 1422 stipulating that all landowners must have their lands sown with "good grain" or face a large fine in the Camera Comunale. These indicate how strong the demand was for grain. Also, flax and hemp were cultivated, indicating the commercial demand from the city. By the end of the 1400s, so much land had been turned over to farmland that shepherds's complaints are recorded saying that they could no longer find suitable pastureland and had to take their flocks into the Marche.

With the decline of the political prestige of the Gabrielli, Gubbio was thereafter incorporated into the territories of the House of Montefeltro. The lord of Urbino, Federico da Montefeltro rebuilt the ancient Palazzo Ducale in Gubbio, incorporating in it a studiolo veneered with intarsia like his studiolo at Urbino.

Early modern period

16th-17th centuries

The maiolica industry at Gubbio reached its apogee in the first half of the 16th century, with metallic lustre glazes imitating gold and copper.

There was significant deforestation around the 16th century, both in the uplands and lowlands, and some of the steep slopes that today only support "limited scrub and woodland cover" may have had more significant forests before the 1500s, supported by thicker soils that have since been eroded away. Also, especially since the 16th century, ditches and levees have been constructed to control water flow, significantly altering the drainage patterns in the valley.

Gubbio became part of the Papal States in 1631, when the della Rovere family, to whom the Duchy of Urbino had been granted, was extinguished. In 1860 Gubbio was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy along with the rest of the Papal States.

The name of the Pamphili family, a great papal family, originated in Gubbio then went to Rome under the pontificate of Pope Innocent VIII (1484–1492), and is immortalized by Diego Velázquez and his portrait of Pope Innocent X.

Geography

Gubbio is located in an upland valley in the Apennine Mountains, in the northeastern part of the present-day region of Umbria. This particular part of Umbria is a transitional area, close to both Marche to the east and Tuscany to the west. As a result, Gubbio has historically had strong political and cultural ties to both of those regions.

The Gubbio valley itself is arranged on a northwest-to-southeast axis. A steep limestone escarpment bounds the basin to the northeast. Unusually, streams flow through the Gubbio valley in two opposite directions, although both streams ultimately flow to the Tiber. These two streams are the Assino and the Chiascio. Two smaller streams, both called Saonda, run along the western side of the basin; one is a tributary of the Assino and the other is a tributary of the Chiascio. There is no clear watershed between the two Saondas, which may explain why they have the same name.

The municipality borders Cagli ( PU), Cantiano (PU), Costacciaro, Fossato di Vico, Gualdo Tadino, Perugia, Pietralunga, Scheggia e Pascelupo, Sigillo, Umbertide and Valfabbrica.

Geology

The Gubbio Basin is a graben filled with river and lake sediments. Drainage is to the northwest and southwest; the rest is mostly surrounded by "marly-arenaceous formations on the hills", while to the north is a steep escarpment. The surrounding mountains are primarily limestone and marl. Sediment runoff from the escarpment created several alluvial fans below it, resulting in the central part of the valley being higher. This is the reason behind the unusual opposite-flowing streams in the valley.

The origins lie during the Pleistocene, when tectonic activity simultaneously caused the basin to sink and the mountains to rise. There was once a lake in the basin. In the early Holocene, the lake disappeared and a stream system emerged.

''Frazioni''

The frazioni (territorial subdivisions) of the ''comune'' of Gubbio are the villages of: Belvedere, Bevelle, Biscina, Branca, Burano, Camporeggiano, Carbonesca, Casamorcia-Raggio, Cipolleto, Colonnata, Colpalombo, Ferratelle, Loreto, Magrano, Mocaiana, Monteleto, Monteluiano, Nogna, Padule, Petroia, Ponte d'Assi, Raggio, San Benedetto Vecchio, San Marco, San Martino in Colle, Santa Cristina, Scritto, Semonte, Spada, Torre Calzolari and Villa Magna.

Monuments and sites of interest

The historical centre of Gubbio has a decidedly medieval aspect: the town is austere in appearance because of the dark grey stone, narrow streets, and Gothic architecture. Many houses in central Gubbio date to the 14th and 15th centuries, and were originally the dwellings of wealthy merchants. They often have a second door fronting on the street, usually just a few centimetres from the main entrance. This secondary entrance is narrower, and or so above the actual street level. This type of door is called a ''porta dei morti'' (door of the dead) because it was proposed that they were used to remove the bodies of any who might have died inside the house. This is almost certainly false, but there is no agreement as to the purpose of the secondary doors. A more likely theory is that the door was used by the owners to protect themselves when opening to unknown persons, leaving them in a dominating position.

Religious architecture or sites

* ''Duomo'': This cathedral was built in the late 12th century. The most striking feature is the rose-window in the façade with, at its sides, the symbols of the Evangelists: the eagle for John the Evangelist, the lion for Mark the Evangelist, the angel for Matthew the Apostle and the ox for Luke the Evangelist. The interior has a latine cross plan with a single nave. The most precious art piece is the wooden Christ over the altar, of the Umbrian school.
* '' San Francesco'': This church from the second half of the 13th century is the sole religious edifice in the city having a nave with two aisles. The vaults are supported by octagonal pilasters. The frescoes on the left side date from the 15th century.
* '' Santa Maria Nuova'': This is a typical Cistercian church of the 13th century. In the interior is a 14th-century fresco portraying the so-called ''Madonna del Belvedere'' (1413), by Ottaviano Nelli. It also has a work by Guido Palmeruccio. Also from the Cistercians is the ''Convent of St. Augustine'', with some frescoes by Nelli.
* '' Basilica of Sant'Ubaldo'', with a nave and four aisles is a sanctuary outside the city. Noteworthy are the marble altar and the great windows with episodes of the life of Ubald, patron of Gubbio. The finely sculpted portals and the fragmentary frescoes give a hint of the magnificent 15th-century decoration once boasted by the basilica.
* '' San Giovanni Battista, Gubbio'': 13th-century church with one nave only with four transversal arches supporting the pitched roof, a model for later Gubbio churches.
* '' San Domenico'', once known as San Martino
* '' Sant'Agostino''
* '' Santa Croce della Foce''

Secular architecture or sites

* '' Roman Theatre'': This ancient open air theater built in the 1st century BC using square blocks of local limestone. Traces of mosaic decoration have been found. Originally, the diameter of the cavea was 70 metres and could house up to 6,000 spectators.
* ''Roman Mausoleum'': This Mausoleum is sometimes said to be of Gaius Pomponius Graecinus, but on no satisfactory grounds.
* '' Palazzo dei Consoli'': Dating to the first half of the 14th century, this massive palace, is now a museum housing the Iguvine Tablets.
* ''Palazzo and Torre Gabrielli''
* ''Palazzo Ducale'': The Palace built from 1470 by Luciano Laurana or Francesco di Giorgio Martini for Federico da Montefeltro. Famous is the inner court, reminiscent of the Palazzo Ducale, Urbino.
* ''Museo Cante Gabrielli'': This museum is housed in the '' Palazzo del Capitano del Popolo'', which once belonged to the Gabrielli family.
* ''Vivian Gabriel Oriental Collection'': This is a museum of Tibetan, Nepalese, Chinese and Indian art. The collection was donated to the municipality by Edmund Vivian Gabriel (1875–1950), British colonial officer and adventurer, a collateral descendant of the Gabrielli who were lords of Gubbio in the Middle Ages.

Culture

Gubbio is home to the Corsa dei Ceri, a run held every year always on Saint Ubaldo Day, the 15th day of May, in which three teams, devoted to Ubald, Saint George and Saint Anthony the Great run through throngs of cheering supporters clad in the distinctive colours of yellow, blue and black, with white trousers and red belts and neckbands, up much of the mountain from the main square in front of the Palazzo dei Consoli to the basilica of St. Ubaldo, each team carrying a statue of their saint mounted on a wooden octagonal prism, similar to an hour-glass shape tall and weighing about .

The race has strong devotional, civic, and historical overtones and is one of the best-known folklore manifestations in Italy; the Ceri was chosen as the heraldic emblem on the coat of arms of Umbria as a modern administrative region.

A celebration like the Corsa dei Ceri is held also in Jessup, Pennsylvania. In this small town the people carry out the same festivities as the residents of Gubbio do by "racing" the three statues through the streets during the Memorial Day weekend. This remains an important and sacred event in both towns.

Gubbio was also one of the centres of production of the Italian pottery (maiolica), during the Renaissance. The most important Italian potter of that period, Giorgio Andreoli, was active in Gubbio during the early 16th century.

The town's most famous story is that of "The Wolf of Gubbio"; a man-eating wolf that was tamed by St. Francis of Assisi and who then became a docile resident of the city. The legend is related to the 14th-century ''Little Flowers of St. Francis''.

The Gubbio Layer

Gubbio is also known among geologists and palaeontologists as the discovery place of what was at first called the "Gubbio layer", a sedimentary layer enriched in iridium that was exposed by a roadcut outside of town. This thin, dark band of sediment marks the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, also known as the K–T boundary or K–Pg boundary, between the Cretaceous and Paleogene geological periods about million years ago, and was formed by infalling debris from the gigantic meteor impact probably responsible for the mass extinction of the dinosaurs. Its iridium, a heavy metal rare on Earth's surface, is plentiful in extraterrestrial material such as comets and asteroids. It also contains small globules of glassy material called tektites, formed in the initial impact. Discovered at Gubbio, the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary is also visible at many places all over the world. The characteristics of this boundary layer support the theory that a devastating meteorite impact, with accompanying ecological and climatic disturbance, was directly responsible for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.

Gubbio in fiction

In Hermann Hesse's novel '' Steppenwolf'' (1927) the isolated and tormented protagonist – a namesake of the wolf – consoles himself at one point by recalling a scene that the author might have beheld during his travels: "(...) that slender cypress on the hill over Gubbio that, though split and riven by a fall of stone, yet held fast to life and put forth with its last resources a new sparse tuft at the top".Herman Hesse, ''Steppenwolf'', chapter 1. ("For Madmen Only")

The town is a backdrop in Antal Szerb's novel '' Journey by Moonlight'' (1937) as well as Danièle Sallenave's '' Les Portes de Gubbio'' (1980).

The TV series '' Don Matteo'', where the title character ministers to his parish while solving crimes, was shot on location in Gubbio between 2000 and 2011.

The 2024 novel ''What We Buried'' by Robert Rotenberg takes place in Canada and Gubbio. In particular, the novel involves the 40 "Martyrs of Gubbio", civilians seized from their homes by German soldiers late in WW2 and shot, in reprisal for the shooting of a German officer by partisans.

Other

Anna Moroni, a popular cook on the Italian daytime TV series " La Prova del Cuoco" discusses Gubbio in many of her TV segments. She often cooks dishes from the region on TV, and she featured Gubbio in her first book.

Sport

A.S. Gubbio 1910 football club play in Serie C at the Pietro Barbetti Stadium.

Transportation

The city is served by Fossato di Vico–Gubbio railway station located in Fossato di Vico; until 1945 it also operated the Central Apennine railway (''Ferrovia Appenino Centrale'' abbreviation ''FAC'') with a narrow gauge which departed from Arezzo and reached as far as Fossato di Vico and in Gubbio had his own railway station located in via Beniamino Ubaldi 2, now completely demolished.

Twin towns – Sister cities

Gubbio is twinned with:

Notable people

* Giosuè Fioriti (born 1989), Italian footballer

See also

* Roman Catholic Diocese of Gubbio
* Mount Ingino Christmas Tree

References

External links

Official website

{{Authority control

Hilltowns in Umbria
Roman sites of Umbria