''Hypericum perforatum'', commonly known as St. John's wort (sometimes perforate St. John's wort or common St. John's wort), is a
flowering plant
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed with ...
in the family
Hypericaceae
Hypericaceae is a plant family in the order Malpighiales, comprising six to nine genera and up to 700 species, and commonly known as the St. John's wort family. Members are found throughout the world apart from extremely cold or dry habitats. ...
. It is a hairless,
perennial herb with woody
roots
A root is the part of a plant, generally underground, that anchors the plant body, and absorbs and stores water and nutrients.
Root or roots may also refer to:
Art, entertainment, and media
* ''The Root'' (magazine), an online magazine focusin ...
, yellow
flowers
Flowers, also known as blooms and blossoms, are the reproductive structures of flowering plants ( angiosperms). Typically, they are structured in four circular levels, called whorls, around the end of a stalk. These whorls include: calyx, m ...
marked by black glands, and leaves that appear
perforated due to
translucent
In the field of optics, transparency (also called pellucidity or diaphaneity) is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without appreciable light scattering by particles, scattering of light. On a macroscopic scale ...
glands, producing thousands of seeds per plant.
''H. perforatum'' is the type species of its
genus
Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
, known for its historical use in
folklore
Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture. This includes oral traditions such as Narrative, tales, myths, legends, proverbs, Poetry, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions. This also ...
and
traditional medicine
Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) refers to the knowledge, skills, and practices rooted in the cultural beliefs of various societies, especially Indigenous groups, used for maintaining health and treatin ...
. Probably a
hybrid between the closely related ''
H. attenuatum'' and ''
H. maculatum'' (imperforate St. John's wort) that originated in
Siberia
Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...
, the species has
spread worldwide. It can further hybridize with related species due to its
allopolyploid nature. It is native to much of Europe,
West
West is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth.
Etymology
The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance langu ...
and
Central Asia
Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...
, and parts of Africa and China and has been widely introduced elsewhere, thriving in well-drained,
temperate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ran ...
habitats such as meadows, hillsides, and open woods with moderate rainfall and mild temperatures. It is a resilient,
toxic
Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a subst ...
, and
invasive plant that
reproduces sexually and vegetatively, supports specialized insect
herbivores
A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically evolved to feed on plants, especially upon vascular tissues such as foliage, fruits or seeds, as the main component of its diet. These more broadly also encompass animals that eat ...
, suffers from
plant diseases, and poses ecological and agricultural threats in many parts of the world.
''H. perforatum'' has been used for centuries in traditional medicine, especially for treating
wounds
A wound is any disruption of or damage to living tissue, such as skin, mucous membranes, or organs. Wounds can either be the sudden result of direct trauma (mechanical, thermal, chemical), or can develop slowly over time due to underlying diseas ...
and
depression. To prepare it for use, the oil from its glands can be extracted or its above-ground parts can be dried and ground into a powder called ''herba hyperici''. ''H. perforatum'' exhibits
antidepressant
Antidepressants are a class of medications used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, chronic pain, and addiction.
Common side effects of antidepressants include Xerostomia, dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, akathi ...
effects comparable to drugs with fewer
side effects
In medicine, a side effect is an effect of the use of a medicinal drug or other treatment, usually adverse but sometimes beneficial, that is unintended. Herbal and traditional medicines also have side effects.
A drug or procedure usually used ...
for mild to moderate depression (for which it is approved in the European Union only); however, it may interact with various medications by accelerating their metabolism.
Description
''Hypericum perforatum'' is an
herbaceous
Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials.
Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous"
The fourth edition of ...
perennial plant
In horticulture, the term perennial (''wikt:per-#Prefix, per-'' + ''wikt:-ennial#Suffix, -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annual plant, annuals and biennial plant, biennials. It has thus been d ...
with hairless (
glabrous
Glabrousness () is the technical term for a lack of hair, down, setae, trichomes, or other such covering. A glabrous surface may be a natural characteristic of all or part of a plant or animal, or be due to loss because of a physical condition, ...
) stems and leaves.
The root of each plant is slender and woody with many small, fibrous small side roots and also extensive, creeping
rhizome
In botany and dendrology, a rhizome ( ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and Shoot (botany), shoots from its Node (botany), nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from ...
s.
The
central root grows to a depth of into the soil depending on conditions.
The crown of the root is woody.
Its stems are erect and branched in the upper section, and usually range from 0.3 metres to 1 metre in height.
The stems are woody near their base and look like they have segmented joints from the
scars left behind after the leaves fall off.
The stems of ''H. perforatum'' are rusty-yellow to rosy in color with two distinct edges and usually have bark that sheds near the base. The stems persist through the winter and sprout new growth with flower buds in the following year; first year growth does not produce flowers.
It has leaves that attach on
opposite sides of the stems without a stalk (
sessile). The leaves vary in shape from being very narrow and almost grass-like (
linear
In mathematics, the term ''linear'' is used in two distinct senses for two different properties:
* linearity of a '' function'' (or '' mapping'');
* linearity of a '' polynomial''.
An example of a linear function is the function defined by f(x) ...
), to a rounded oval slightly wider at the base with a rounded tip or not much of a tip (
elliptic), or even narrow with the widest portion towards the end of the leaf like a reversed lance point, but still long and narrow (oblanceolate).
The principle leaves range in length from 0.8 to 3.5 centimetres
and 0.31–1.6 centimetres in width.
Leaves borne on the branches
subtend the shortened branchlets. The leaves are yellow-green in color, with scattered
translucent
In the field of optics, transparency (also called pellucidity or diaphaneity) is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without appreciable light scattering by particles, scattering of light. On a macroscopic scale ...
dots of glandular tissue. The dots are clearly visible when held up to the light, giving the leaves a
perforated appearance. The edges (margins) of the leaves usually have scattered black dots, often called dark glands, though sometimes they will appear away from the edges.
The odor of the plant is faint, but aromatic, resembling that of resins like
balsam. The taste of the plant is bitter and acrid.
Flowering characteristics

The flowers are conspicuous and showy, measuring about across, and are bright yellow with black dots along the edges of the petals.
Each of the flowers normally has five large petals and five smaller leaf-like
sepal
A sepal () is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom., p. 106
Etymology
The term ''sepalum'' ...
s below them. The sepals are about in length, green in color, are shaped like the head of a spear (
lanceolate
The following terms are used to describe leaf plant morphology, morphology in the description and taxonomy (biology), taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple (that is, the leaf blade or 'lamina' is undivided) or compound (that is, the leaf blade ...
shape) with a pointed tip, and the same clear and black glands as the leaves. The petals are significantly longer, in length, and have an oblong shape. They completely hide the sepals from the front side of the flower.
The many bright yellow
stamen
The stamen (: stamina or stamens) is a part consisting of the male reproductive organs of a flower. Collectively, the stamens form the androecium., p. 10
Morphology and terminology
A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filament ...
s are united at the base into three bundles.
The stalk portion of the stamens, the filaments, vary in length and stick out in every direction from the center of the flower.
The
pollen
Pollen is a powdery substance produced by most types of flowers of seed plants for the purpose of sexual reproduction. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced Gametophyte#Heterospory, microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm ...
grains are pale brown to orange in color.
The flowers are arranged along one side of each flowering stem with two flowers at each node (a
helicoid cyme) at the ends of the upper branches, between late spring and early to mid-summer.
Each flowering stem bears many flowers, between 25 and 100, and also is quite leafy.
The fruit of ''Hypericum perforatum'' is a capsule in length containing the seeds in three valved chambers.
Seeds that are separated from the capsules have a much higher
germination
Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or spore. The term is applied to the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of fungi, ...
rate due to an inhibiting factor in the capsule itself.
The black and
lustrous seeds are rough, netted with coarse grooves.
Each seed is about in size.
Each plant may produce an average of 15,000 to 34,000 seeds.
Similar species
''
Hypericum maculatum'' is visually similar to ''Hypericum perforatum;'' however, its stems have four ridges instead of two and are also hollow. In addition, its leaves have fewer translucent glands and more dark glands. ''H. maculatum'' is native to the Old World but has also been introduced to North America.
In North America several native species may be confused with ''Hypericum perforatum''. ''
Hypericum anagalloides'' is a low-growing creeping plant with rounder leaves and fewer stamens. ''
Hypericum boreale'' is a smaller plant with more delicate flowers. ''
Hypericum canadense'' has smaller flowers with sepals that show between the petals. ''
Hypericum concinnum'' has flowers with petals that bend backward at the tip and also has much narrower, gray-green leaves. Growing in
riparian
A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. In some regions, the terms riparian woodland, riparian forest, riparian buffer zone, riparian corridor, and riparian strip are used to characterize a ripar ...
areas along rivers, ''
Hypericum ellipticum'' has wider leaves with a more elliptic shape. ''
Hypericum scouleri'' has leaves that are broader at the base and also thicker. All except for ''H. concinnum'' grow in environments that are generally more moist than where ''H. perforatum'' is found.
Phytochemistry

The most common active chemicals in ''Hypericum perforatum'' are
hypericin and
pseudohypericin (
naphthodianthrones), and
hyperforin
Hyperforin is a phytochemical produced by some of the members of the plant genus ''Hypericum'', notably ''Hypericum perforatum'' (St John's wort). Hyperforin may be involved in the pharmacology, pharmacological effects of St. John's wort, specifi ...
(a
phloroglucinol derivative).
The species contains a host of
essential oil
An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the ...
s, the bulk of which are
sesquiterpene
Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and often have the molecular formula C15H24. Like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes may be cyclic or contain rings, including many combinations. Biochemical modifications s ...
s.
In the wild, the concentrations of any active chemicals can vary widely among individual plants and populations.
[
]
Notes:
Taxonomy
''Hypericum perforatum'' was selected to be the
type species
In International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature, zoological nomenclature, a type species (''species typica'') is the species name with which the name of a genus or subgenus is considered to be permanently taxonomically associated, i.e., the spe ...
around which the genus ''Hypericum'' is based because of its wide
cosmopolitan distribution
In biogeography, a cosmopolitan distribution is the range of a taxon that extends across most or all of the surface of the Earth, in appropriate habitats; most cosmopolitan species are known to be highly adaptable to a range of climatic and en ...
; it is the most common species of the genus in many of the areas it is found, and is one of the most widely known plants among the St John's worts in folklore and medicine.
The current accepted placement of ''H. perforatum'' within its genus can be summarized as follows:
''
Hypericum
''Hypericum'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family (biology), family Hypericaceae (formerly considered a subfamily of Clusiaceae). The genus has a nearly worldwide distribution, missing only from tropical lowlands, deserts and polar re ...
''
:
''Hypericum'' subg. ''Hypericum''
::
''Hypericum'' sect. ''Hypericum''
::: ''Hypericum'' subsect. ''Hypericum''
:::: ''Hypericum'' ser. ''Senanensia''
:::: ''Hypericum'' ser. ''Hypericum''
::::: ''
H. attenuatum''
::::: ''
H. iwate-littorale''
::::: ''
H. maculatum''
::::: ''
H. momoseanum''
::::: ''H. perforatum''
::::: ''
H. scouleri''
::::: ''
H. tetrapterum''
::::: ''
H. tosaense''
::::: ''
H. triquetrifolium''
::::: ''
H. undulatum''
Phylogeny
''Hypericum perforatum'' has a
chromosome count of 2n = 32. The likely reason for this is that the species is a
hybrid between the very closely related ''H. maculatum subsp. immaculatum'' and ''
H. attenuatum,'' which means it inherited sets of chromosomes from both parents and is
allopolyploid. The two species almost certainly hybridized within
Siberia, Russia. The equation for this hybridization is:
Because of its hybrid origins, ''Hypericum perforatum'' is one of the few species within its genus that is able to further hybridize with other species, specifically those within
''H.'' ser. ''Hypericum''. The hybrids that are descended from ''H. perforatum'' can be triploid (3 sets of chromosomes) to hexaploid (6 sets), depending on the chromosome count of the second parent species and the ploidy of the specific ''H. perforatum''
gamete
A gamete ( ) is a Ploidy#Haploid and monoploid, haploid cell that fuses with another haploid cell during fertilization in organisms that Sexual reproduction, reproduce sexually. Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells, also referred to as s ...
that is fertilized or is fertilizing. The triploid offspring exhibit and a mix of traits from the two parents and pass them on to their offspring; the tetraploids also have a mix of traits, but often do not pass on the traits of both parents; the pentaploids are rarely distinguishable from ''H. perforatum''. Because of this, after many generations of hybridization a wide range of traits on a spectrum between the two hybridizing species can be observed in the wild.
[
]
Etymology and common names
The
genus
Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
name ''Hypericum'' is possibly derived from the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
words (above) and (picture), in reference to the tradition of hanging the plant over religious
icon
An icon () is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, in the cultures of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic Church, Catholic, and Lutheranism, Lutheran churches. The most common subjects include Jesus, Mary, mother of ...
s in the home. The
specific epithet
In Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin gramm ...
''perforatum'' is
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
and refers to the perforated appearance of the plant's leaves.
The common name ''St John's wort'' comes from the fact that its flowers and buds were commonly harvested at the time of the
Midsummer festival, which was later
Christianized as
St John's Feast Day on 24 June. It was believed that harvesting the flower at this time made its healing and magical powers more potent. The herb would be hung on house and stall doors on St John's Feast Day to ward off evil spirits and to safeguard against harm and sickness to people and livestock. In other traditions it was burned in bonfires for the protection of crops along with other herbs believed to be magical.
Because of its supposed potency in warding off spirits, the plant was also known as ''fuga daemonum'' (loosely "demon-flight").
[Ernst 2003, p. 2.] Many other similarly fanciful names have been used for it including ''devil's scourge'', ''Lord God's wonder plant'', and ''witch's herb''. In medieval
Kent
Kent is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in South East England. It is bordered by Essex across the Thames Estuary to the north, the Strait of Dover to the south-east, East Sussex to the south-west, Surrey to the west, and Gr ...
it was called ''herbe Ion'' (Ion in this case referring to "John") as recorded in the poem ''The Feate of Gardening''. Other local names for ''Hypericum perforatum'' include ''balm of the warrior's wound'' in
Somerset
Somerset ( , ), Archaism, archaically Somersetshire ( , , ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in South West England. It is bordered by the Bristol Channel, Gloucestershire, and Bristol to the north, Wiltshire to the east ...
, ''penny John'' in
Norfolk
Norfolk ( ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in England, located in East Anglia and officially part of the East of England region. It borders Lincolnshire and The Wash to the north-west, the North Sea to the north and eas ...
, ''rosin rose'' in
Yorkshire
Yorkshire ( ) is an area of Northern England which was History of Yorkshire, historically a county. Despite no longer being used for administration, Yorkshire retains a strong regional identity. The county was named after its county town, the ...
, and ''touch-and-heal'' in
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland ( ; ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, part of the United Kingdom in the north-east of the island of Ireland. It has been #Descriptions, variously described as a country, province or region. Northern Ireland shares Repub ...
.
Locally in the United States, it may also be referred to as ''Tipton-weed'', ''goatweed'', or ''Klamath weed''.
In the 21st century, any species of the genus ''Hypericum'' can be referred to as St John's wort. Therefore, it is more accurate to call ''Hypericum perforatum'' the ''common St John's wort'' or ''perforate St John's wort''.
History
''Hypericum perforatum'' has been known and used since at least the first century.
Pedanius Dioscorides
Pedanius Dioscorides (, ; 40–90 AD), "the father of pharmacognosy", was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of (in the original , , both meaning "On Medical Material") , a 5-volume Greek encyclopedic pharmacopeia on he ...
, an early
pharmacologist, referred to either it or ''
H. empetrifolium'' as ''akuron''.
The species was first
formally described by
Carl Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné,#Blunt, Blunt (2004), p. 171. was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming o ...
in the second tome of ''
Species Plantarum
' (Latin for "The Species of Plants") is a book by Carl Linnaeus, originally published in 1753, which lists every species of plant known at the time, classified into genus, genera. It is the first work to consistently apply binomial nomenclature ...
'' in 1753. In it, he gave the following brief description that would serve as the foundation for all subsequent identification of the species:
Linnaeus also noted the species' habitat in the "meadows of Europe" and gave a short account of previous mentions of the plant.
While Linnaeus' taxonomic
priority for this species is not in question, there are a number of
botanical synonyms that were published in the early years of formal
botanical nomenclature
Botanical nomenclature is the formal, scientific naming of plants. It is related to, but distinct from taxonomy (biology), taxonomy. Plant taxonomy is concerned with grouping and classifying plants; Botany, botanical nomenclature then provides na ...
. Gaterau published in 1789 which described and called the species ''Hypericum officinale'', a name now considered to be
illegitimate under the principle of priority. Likewise, the name ''Hypericum officinarum'' by the botanist
Heinrich Johann Nepomuk von Crantz in 1763 also postdated Linnaeus' 1753 naming and description and is considered invalid.
Subdivision

''Hypericum perforatum'' exhibits a great deal of variability in its appearance across its distribution. Thus, determining the exact nature of its
infraspecific taxa is difficult because of the many intermediate forms that exist.
* ''H. perforatum''
subspecies
In Taxonomy (biology), biological classification, subspecies (: subspecies) is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (Morphology (biology), morpholog ...
''perforatum''
Stjep.-Vesel. is the type form of the species. It is distributed from the origin of the species in Siberia, west to central Europe, and east to northern Mongolia. The base changes as the plant grows from round to a broad wedge shape, and the seed capsule
vittae are present throughout the plant's life cycle and are almost always narrow.
** ''H. perforatum''
variety ''angustifolium''
DC. is a variety of the species that is found in drier climates within the range of ssp. ''perforatum''. It has leaves that look more like those of ssp. ''veronense'', but they have
leaf stalks; the glands on the seed capsule are also distinct.
** ''H. perforatum'' var. ''humile''
Stranski can be found in parts of the southern Balkans. These plants possess smaller, more ring-shaped leaves and the seed capsules have flattish
vesicles on their surface. These appear to be adaptations of ssp. ''perforatum'' in response to the mountainous habitats of the region.
* ''H. perforatum'' ssp. ''songaricum'' is likely the most primitive after ssp. ''perforatum''. Previously described as a variety by
Karl Koch,
Norman Robson elevated the taxon to subspecies in his monograph of the genus. The leaves are sessile and have a heart-shaped base that partially surrounds the stem.
** ''H. perforatum'' var. ''gracile'' has smaller leaves and is found in western Kazakhstan, southern Russia, and southern Ukraine. In the drier areas of this range the variety exhibits a dull grey-green color on the underside of its leaves.
* ''H. perforatum'' ssp. ''veronense'' can be found in the Caucasus, across the Middle East to Tajikistan, and along North Africa to
Macaronesia
Macaronesia (; ) is a collection of four volcanic archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlantic, North Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of North Africa and Europe. Each archipelago is made up of a number of list of islands in the Atlantic Oc ...
. These plants have narrower leaves and display diagonal vittae on the seed capsules. Where it meets the distribution of ssp. ''perforatum'' the two subspecies hybridize regularly.
** ''H. perforatum'' var. ''ellipticum'' retains the diagonal vittae of the subspecies but the leaves are not as narrow. The variety is distributed in areas with greater moisture such as in the mountainous areas of Turkmenistan.
* ''H. perforatum'' ssp. ''chinense'' is found across most of China and was introduced into Japan (under the synonym ''H. foliosissimum''
Koidz.). Both its leaves and flowers are smaller, and the flower clusters are smaller and more crowded on the ends of longer branches.
Distribution and habitat
Distribution

''Hypericum perforatum'' is thought to be native to every nation in Europe, and is only absent from the far north such as north European Russia and
Svalbard
Svalbard ( , ), previously known as Spitsbergen or Spitzbergen, is a Norway, Norwegian archipelago that lies at the convergence of the Arctic Ocean with the Atlantic Ocean. North of continental Europe, mainland Europe, it lies about midway be ...
. It grows in parts of North Africa and is native to Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Sudan.
In the
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
it only grows in parts of Saudi Arabia. It is present and native to all of the Western Asia
phytogeographic region from the
Aegean Islands and Turkey to Israel and Palestine in the west to Afghanistan in the east, only being absent from the
Sinai Peninsula
The Sinai Peninsula, or simply Sinai ( ; ; ; ), is a peninsula in Egypt, and the only part of the country located in Asia. It is between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south, and is a land bridge between Asia and Afri ...
. Just to the east of this area it is also native to Pakistan and the western Himalaya region of India.
In the temperate parts of Asia, ''Hypericum perforatum'' is mostly absent from Siberia with the exception of
Western Siberia
Western Siberia or West Siberia ( rus, Западная Сибирь, p=ˈzapədnəjə sʲɪˈbʲirʲ; , ) is a region in North Asia. It is part of the wider region of Siberia that is mostly located in the Russia, Russian Federation, with a Sout ...
, the
Altai Region, and the warmest parts of
Krasnoyarsk Krai
Krasnoyarsk Krai (, ) is a federal subjects of Russia, federal subject (a krai) of Russia located in Siberia. Its administrative center is the types of inhabited localities in Russia, city of Krasnoyarsk, the second-largest city in Siberia after ...
. It has also been introduced to
Irkutsk
Irkutsk ( ; rus, Иркутск, p=ɪrˈkutsk; Buryat language, Buryat and , ''Erhüü'', ) is the largest city and administrative center of Irkutsk Oblast, Russia. With a population of 587,891 Irkutsk is the List of cities and towns in Russ ...
and
Buryatia
Buryatia, officially the Republic of Buryatia, is a republic of Russia located in the Russian Far East. Formerly part of the Siberian Federal District, it has been administered as part of the Far Eastern Federal District since 2018. To its nort ...
. It is a native part of the flora of Central Asia, growing in all the former
Soviet republics. It also is known in almost every part of the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
. In China it is native to
Xinjiang
Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...
(in western China), central China, and southern China, but not to Inner Mongolia,
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China and parts of the modern-day Russian Far East south of the Uda (Khabarovsk Krai), Uda River and the Tukuringra-Dzhagdy Ranges. The exact ...
, or
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
. In the far east of Asia it has been introduced to
Primorye in Russia, Korea, and Japan.
In North America, it is found in all of the continental US states except for
Utah
Utah is a landlocked state in the Mountain states, Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It is one of the Four Corners states, sharing a border with Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico. It also borders Wyoming to the northea ...
,
Arizona
Arizona is a U.S. state, state in the Southwestern United States, Southwestern region of the United States, sharing the Four Corners region of the western United States with Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. It also borders Nevada to the nort ...
,
Florida
Florida ( ; ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders the Gulf of Mexico to the west, Alabama to the northwest, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the north, the Atlantic ...
, and
Alabama
Alabama ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South, Deep Southern regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gu ...
. It has been introduced throughout much of Canada,
as well as in
Hawaii
Hawaii ( ; ) is an island U.S. state, state of the United States, in the Pacific Ocean about southwest of the U.S. mainland. One of the two Non-contiguous United States, non-contiguous U.S. states (along with Alaska), it is the only sta ...
, Cuba, and Haiti.
In South America, it is found in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, the
Juan Fernández Islands
The Juan Fernández Islands () are a sparsely inhabited series of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, reliant on tourism and fishing. Situated off the coast of Chile, they are composed of three main volcanic islands: Robinson Crusoe Island, R ...
, and the more
temperate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ran ...
parts of Brazil in the southeast. In the southern parts of Africa it has become established in South Africa,
Lesotho
Lesotho, formally the Kingdom of Lesotho and formerly known as Basutoland, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. Entirely surrounded by South Africa, it is the largest of only three sovereign enclave and exclave, enclaves in the world, t ...
, and
Réunion
Réunion (; ; ; known as before 1848) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately east of the isl ...
. In Australia it is found in the states of
South Australia
South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a States and territories of Australia, state in the southern central part of Australia. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories by area, which in ...
,
Tasmania
Tasmania (; palawa kani: ''Lutruwita'') is an island States and territories of Australia, state of Australia. It is located to the south of the Mainland Australia, Australian mainland, and is separated from it by the Bass Strait. The sta ...
,
Victoria, and
Western Australia
Western Australia (WA) is the westernmost state of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Southern Ocean to the south, the Northern Territory to the north-east, and South Australia to the south-east. Western Aust ...
. It has been introduced to both the North and South Islands of New Zealand.
Habitat
The species can be found in a variety of habitats including open woods,
meadow
A meadow ( ) is an open habitat or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non- woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as they maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable con ...
s, grasslands,
steppe
In physical geography, a steppe () is an ecoregion characterized by grassland plains without closed forests except near rivers and lakes.
Steppe biomes may include:
* the montane grasslands and shrublands biome
* the tropical and subtropica ...
, riverbanks, and stony or grassy hillsides and roadsides. It prefers dry habitats or areas with strong
drainage
Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from an area with excess water. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils can prevent severe waterlogging (anaerobic conditions that harm root gro ...
.
The species thrives in areas with at least of rainfall per year; however, its distribution is restricted by temperatures too low for seed germination or seedling survival: an absolute minimum of −3°C or an annual average of 9°C.
Altitudes greater than , rainfall less than , and daily mean temperatures greater than are also considered limiting thresholds.
Ecology
Reproduction

St John's wort reproduces both
vegetatively and
sexually. Depending on environmental and climatic conditions, and the age of the plant, St John's wort will alter the way it grows to promote survival. Summer rains are particularly effective in allowing the plant to grow vegetatively, following
defoliation
A defoliant is any Herbicide, herbicidal chemical sprayed or dusted on plants to cause their Leaf, leaves to fall off. Defoliants are widely used for the selective removal of weeds in managing croplands and lawns. Worldwide use of defoliants, ...
by insects or grazing.
[Ramawat, Kishan Gopal. ''Bioactive Molecules and Medicinal Plants''. Springer Science & Business Media, 2008. p. 152. ] St John's wort may also produce viable
seeds without fertilization.
Its seeds can persist for decades while lying dormant underground in an ecosystem's
soil seed bank, germinating after they are disturbed.
Diseases
''H. perforatum'' is affected by
phytoplasma diseases, and when infected with
''Candidatus'' phytoplasma fraxini it shows visible symptoms, including yellowing and deformities called
witch's broom. Its chemical profile is also altered: naphthodianthrone,
flavonoid
Flavonoids (or bioflavonoids; from the Latin word ''flavus'', meaning yellow, their color in nature) are a class of polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants, and thus commonly consumed in the diets of humans.
Chemically, flavonoids ...
,
amentoflavone, and pseudohypericin levels are reduced;
chlorogenic acid levels are increased. Additionally, phytoplasma diseases greatly reduce the essential oil yield of the plant.
Dieback among populations of St John's wort is also caused by fungal
anthracnose, such as ''
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.'' This fungus causes the stems to lose their bark (
girdling
Girdling, also called ring-barking, is the circumferential removal or injury of the bark (consisting of cork cambium or "phellogen", phloem, cambium and sometimes also the xylem) of a branch or trunk of a woody plant. Girdling prevents th ...
) and turn brown, and dries the aboveground parts of the plant. The infection often kills the plant within the first year of its growth, or reduces productivity over a three-year deterioration.
Role as a herbivore food source
Though ''Hypericum perforatum'' is generally avoided by mammalian herbivores, a number of insects are dependent on it and its close relatives as a food source. ''
Chrysolina quadrigemina'' and ''
C. hyperici'' are two beetle species that feed on plants from the genus ''Hypericum'', including ''H. perforatum''. ''Chrysolina quadrigemina'' can be colored metallic blue, purple, green, or bronze and is better adapted to warm and dry climates; ''Chrysolina hyperici'' is consistently smaller, metallic green, and tends to live in areas with wetter and cooler conditions.
Another ''Hyericum'' specialist beetle is ''
Agrilus hyperici'', the St John's wort root borer, whose
larva
A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase ...
e feed on the roots of ''H. perforatum'' while the adults feed on the foliage.
A moth, ''
Aplocera plagiata'', feeds heavily upon the leaves of ''H. perforatum'' as a caterpillar and is commonly known as the common St John's wort inchworm. As adults, they are a small moth with gray wings and dark gray bands.
Another moth that feeds upon ''H. perforatum'' is ''
Euspilapteryx auroguttella''. Their caterpillars start by mining the inside of the leaves and later roll the leaves into cigar shapes to feed in greater safety.
''
Agonopterix hypericella'' is another small () gray moth that exclusively feeds upon ''Hypericum''.
''Zeuxidiplosis giardi'', the common St. Johnswort gall
midge
A midge is any small fly, including species in several family (biology), families of non-mosquito nematoceran Diptera. Midges are found (seasonally or otherwise) on practically every land area outside permanently arid deserts and the frigid ...
, is a small () fly that eats ''H. perforatum'' while developing. The larvae feed upon leaf buds, which causes the plant to form a round growth called a
gall
Galls (from the Latin , 'oak-apple') or ''cecidia'' (from the Greek , anything gushing out) are a kind of swelling growth on the external tissues of plants. Plant galls are abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues, similar to benign tumors or war ...
where the developing insect can feed, is protected, and
pupa
A pupa (; : pupae) is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their life cycle, the stages th ...
tes into a mature adult.
Toxicity
''Hypericum perforatum'' is
toxic
Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a subst ...
to numerous domestic animals such as cows, sheep, and horses. When these animals come into contact with the plant, usually through grazing, they develop serious symptoms. The first signs are reddening of the skin accompanied by swelling, which is followed by
necrosis
Necrosis () is a form of cell injury which results in the premature death of cells in living tissue by autolysis. The term "necrosis" came about in the mid-19th century and is commonly attributed to German pathologist Rudolf Virchow, who i ...
and
sloughing of the skin. Non-
pigmented, white skin is most affected by the poisoning, such as the nose and ears of certain breeds of sheep.
Young animals are more susceptible to ''H. perforatum'' poisoning, and the plant is most toxic in spring (when it is the most palatable to herbivores) and retains its toxic effects when dried in
hay. Additionally, affected animals will become highly
photosensitive Photosensitivity is the amount to which an object reacts upon receiving photons, especially visible light. In medicine, the term is principally used for abnormal reactions of the skin, and two types are distinguished, photoallergy and phototoxicity. ...
, and exposure to sunlight can exacerbate their symptoms. As such, they should be moved to a dark area; administering of
antihistamine
Antihistamines are drugs which treat allergic rhinitis, common cold, influenza, and other allergies. Typically, people take antihistamines as an inexpensive, generic (not patented) drug that can be bought without a prescription and provides ...
s or
anti-inflammatory
Anti-inflammatory is the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation, fever or swelling. Anti-inflammatory drugs, also called anti-inflammatories, make up about half of analgesics. These drugs reduce pain by inhibiting mechan ...
medicines may also help alleviate the symptoms.
Invasiveness

Although ''H. perforatum'' is grown commercially in some regions of southeast Europe, it is listed as a
noxious weed
A noxious weed, harmful weed or injurious weed is a weed that has been designated by an agricultural or other governing authority as a plant that is harmful to agricultural or horticultural crops, natural habitats or ecosystems, or humans or lives ...
in more than 20 countries and has introduced populations in South and North America, India, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa.
In pastures, St John's wort acts as both a toxic and invasive weed. It replaces
native plant communities
A plant community is a collection or Association (ecology), association of plant species within a designated geographical unit, which forms a relatively uniform patch, distinguishable from neighboring patches of different vegetation types. The comp ...
and
forage
Forage is a plant material (mainly plant leaves and stems) eaten by grazing livestock. Historically, the term ''forage'' has meant only plants eaten by the animals directly as pasture, crop residue, or immature cereal crops, but it is also used m ...
vegetation to the extent of making productive land nonviable or becoming an invasive species in natural
habitat
In ecology, habitat refers to the array of resources, biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species' habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ...
s and
ecosystem
An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by Organism, organisms in interaction with their Biophysical environment, environment. The Biotic material, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and en ...
s.
Effective herbicides for control of ''Hypericum perforatum'' include
2,4-D,
picloram
Picloram is a systemic herbicide used for general woody plant control. It also controls a wide range of broad-leaved weeds, but most grasses are resistant. ,
metsulfuron, and
glyphosate
Glyphosate (IUPAC name: ''N''-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant. It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by EPSP inhibitor, inhibiting the plant enzyme 5-en ...
.
Insect herbivores have also been introduced as
biocontrol
Biological control or biocontrol is a method of pest control, controlling pests, whether pest animals such as insects and mites, weeds, or pathogens affecting animals or phytopathology, plants by bioeffector, using other organisms. It relies o ...
agents in areas outside their native range. Some of the most widely used are ''Chrysolina quadrigemina'', ''Chrysolina hyperici'', ''Agrilus hyperici'', ''
Aplocera plagiata'', and ''Zeuxidiplosis giardi''.
Uses
Traditional medicine

Common St. John's wort has been used in
herbalism
Herbal medicine (also called herbalism, phytomedicine or phytotherapy) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. Scientific evidence for the effectiveness of many herbal treatments ...
for centuries.
It was thought to have medical properties in
classical antiquity
Classical antiquity, also known as the classical era, classical period, classical age, or simply antiquity, is the period of cultural History of Europe, European history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD comprising the inter ...
and was a standard component of ancient concoctions called
theriacs, from the
Mithridate of
Aulus Cornelius Celsus' (
CE) to the
Venice treacle of in 1686. One folk use included the oily extract known as St John's oil, a red, oily liquid extracted from ''H. perforatum'' that may have been a treatment for wounds by the
Knights Hospitaller
The Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, commonly known as the Knights Hospitaller (), is a Catholic military order. It was founded in the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem in the 12th century and had headquarters there ...
, the Order of St John. Another part of the plant that is used is the dried flower structure, which is crushed to make the medicine known as herba hyperici.
Medical research
Antidepressant effects
''H. perforatum'' has approval in the European Union as a herbal product for the treatment of mild to moderate depressive episodes (according to
ICD-10
ICD-10 is the 10th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), a medical classification list by the World Health Organization (WHO). It contains codes for diseases, signs and symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social cir ...
) and for the short-term treatment of symptoms in mild depression.
A 2016 review found that use of St John's wort for mild and moderate depression was better than placebo for improving depression symptoms and comparable to antidepressant medication.
A 2017 meta-analysis found that St John's wort had comparable efficacy and safety to
SSRIs for mild-to-moderate depression and a lower discontinuation rate.
St John's wort appears to be more effective than placebo and as effective as standard antidepressant medications for mild and moderate depression.
A 2015 meta-analysis review concluded that it is more effective than placebo in treating depression, is as effective as standard antidepressants, and has fewer
adverse effect
An adverse effect is an undesired harmful effect resulting from a medication or other intervention, such as surgery. An adverse effect may be termed a "side effect", when judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect. The term compli ...
s than other antidepressants.
Hyperforin, a phytochemical produced by St John's wort, has effects on
cell culture
Cell culture or tissue culture is the process by which cell (biology), cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside of their natural environment. After cells of interest have been Cell isolation, isolated from living tissue, ...
s
in vitro
''In vitro'' (meaning ''in glass'', or ''in the glass'') Research, studies are performed with Cell (biology), cells or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in ...
that may indicate antidepressant properties, although its instability causes uncertainty about its biological effects.
Inability to treat cancer
There is no clinical evidence that St John's wort is effective to treat
cancer
Cancer is a group of diseases involving Cell growth#Disorders, abnormal cell growth with the potential to Invasion (cancer), invade or Metastasis, spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Po ...
. The
National Cancer Institute
The National Cancer Institute (NCI) coordinates the United States National Cancer Program and is part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which is one of eleven agencies that are part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ...
has commented that "the FDA has not approved the use of St. John’s wort as a treatment for cancer or any other medical condition".
St John's wort may reduce the efficacy of
chemotherapy
Chemotherapy (often abbreviated chemo, sometimes CTX and CTx) is the type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (list of chemotherapeutic agents, chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) in a standard chemotherapy re ...
.
Interactions with drugs and other side effects
''H. perforatum'' has been demonstrated to cause significant drug interactions, primarily through
PXR
In the field of molecular biology, the pregnane X receptor (PXR), also known as the steroid and xenobiotic sensing nuclear receptor (SXR) or nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group I, member 2 (NR1I2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ' ...
activation and
CYP3A4
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (abbreviated CYP3A4) () is an important enzyme in the body, mainly found in the liver and in the intestine, which in humans is encoded by ''CYP3A4'' gene. It organic redox reaction, oxidizes small foreign organic molecules ( ...
induction linked to its hyperforin content, affecting the efficacy and safety of various medications.
St. John's wort can
interfere with the effects of prescription and
over-the-counter drugs in potentially adverse ways by increasing
CYP3A4
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (abbreviated CYP3A4) () is an important enzyme in the body, mainly found in the liver and in the intestine, which in humans is encoded by ''CYP3A4'' gene. It organic redox reaction, oxidizes small foreign organic molecules ( ...
and
CYP2C9 liver enzymes, leading to faster conversion of drugs. Specific consequences may include reduced effectiveness of
oral contraceptives, heart medications,
HIV drugs, cancer medications, and some
anticoagulant
An anticoagulant, commonly known as a blood thinner, is a chemical substance that prevents or reduces the coagulation of blood, prolonging the clotting time. Some occur naturally in blood-eating animals, such as leeches and mosquitoes, which ...
s;
other adverse effects may involve
breakthrough bleeding when taking oral contraceptives, and decreased effectiveness of
immunosuppressants in people with
organ transplants.
The increase in these enzymes have been found to be caused by high hyperforin content; consumption of St John's wort products with minimal hyperforin causes fewer side effects and less interference.
However, the concentration of St John's wort's constituent chemicals (including hyperforin) can vary widely between different products,
and their dosage may not be properly marked on packaging.
The most common side effects of St John's wort products (besides drug interactions) are stomach pain, fatigue, and restlessness. Other more rare effects include
photosensitivity Photosensitivity is the amount to which an object reacts upon receiving photons, especially visible light. In medicine, the term is principally used for abnormal reactions of the skin, and two types are distinguished, photoallergy and phototoxicit ...
and skin irritation. Photosensitivity is linked to
hypericin content.
Regulation
In the United States, St John's wort is considered a
dietary supplement
A dietary supplement is a manufactured product intended to supplement a person's diet by taking a pill (pharmacy), pill, capsule (pharmacy), capsule, tablet (pharmacy), tablet, powder, or liquid. A supplement can provide nutrients eithe ...
by the
FDA, is not regulated by the same standards as a
prescription drug
A prescription drug (also prescription medication, prescription medicine or prescription-only medication) is a pharmaceutical drug that is permitted to be dispensed only to those with a medical prescription. In contrast, over-the-counter drugs c ...
, and does not have clearly defined
mechanisms in people. In China, St John's wort combined with ''
Eleutherococcus senticosus'' is sold as an antidepressant under the name (), according to the ''
Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China''. The pharmacopoeia states that it is used "for mild to moderate
unipolar depression".
Dyeing pigment
The plant generally produces a variety of yellows suitable for
dyeing
Dyeing is the application of dyes or pigments on textile materials such as fibers, yarns, and fabrics with the goal of achieving color with desired color fastness. Dyeing is normally done in a special solution containing dyes and particular ...
. When the pigments are extracted using
ethanol
Ethanol (also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol, or simply alcohol) is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is an Alcohol (chemistry), alcohol, with its formula also written as , or EtOH, where Et is the ps ...
, a violet-red colour is made which can be used to dye silk and wool when rinsed in
vinegar
Vinegar () is an aqueous solution of diluted acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings. Vinegar typically contains from 5% to 18% acetic acid by volume. Usually, the acetic acid is produced by a double fermentation, converting ...
. The colours produced are season-dependent.
The flowers produce a series of four different shades on wool, if used in the correct sequence. Wool
mordanted with
alum
An alum () is a type of chemical compound, usually a hydrated double salt, double sulfate salt (chemistry), salt of aluminium with the general chemical formula, formula , such that is a valence (chemistry), monovalent cation such as potassium ...
and unmordanted wool is used. The flowers are simmered to produce a deep red liquid
dye
Juan de Guillebon, better known by his stage name DyE, is a French musician. He is known for the music video of the single "Fantasy
Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction that involves supernatural or Magic (supernatural), magical ele ...
. The alum-mordanted wool skein is added and simmered until green is made. If unmordanted wool is added to the same dye, it will turn reddish-
maroon
Maroon ( , ) is a brownish crimson color that takes its name from the French word , meaning chestnut. ''Marron'' is also one of the French translations for "brown".
Terms describing interchangeable shades, with overlapping RGB ranges, inc ...
. The final colour produced is by continuing the method, to produce yellow or gold.
References
{{Authority control
perforatum
CYP2D6 inhibitors
CYP3A4 inducers
Flora of Europe
Flora of Central Asia
Flora of the Caucasus
Flora of Western Asia
Flora of North-Central China
Flora of Qinghai
Flora of South-Central China
Flora of Southeast China
Flora of West Himalaya
Flora of Algeria
Flora of Altai (region)
Flora of the Azores
Flora of the Canary Islands
Flora of Krasnoyarsk Krai
Flora of Madeira
Flora of Morocco
Flora of Pakistan
Flora of Saudi Arabia
Flora of Sudan
Flora of Tunisia
Flora of West Siberia
Flora of Xinjiang
Garden plants of Europe
Abortifacients
Antidepressants
Medicinal plants
Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors
Plants described in 1753
Pregnane X receptor agonists
Herbs
Subshrubs
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus