A hydrogen infrastructure is the infrastructure of points of
hydrogen production
Hydrogen gas is produced by several industrial methods. Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels. Article in press. Most hydrogen is ''gray hydrogen'' made through steam methane reforming. In this process, ...
, truck and pipeline transport, and hydrogen stations for the distribution and sale of
hydrogen fuel, and thus a crucial prerequisite before a successful commercialization of
fuel cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen fuel, hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most bat ...
technology.

Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline get supply via hydrogen tanks,
compressed hydrogen tube trailers,
liquid hydrogen trailers, liquid hydrogen
tank trucks or dedicated onsite production. Pipelines are the cheapest way to move hydrogen over long distances compared to other options. Hydrogen gas piping is routine in large oil-refineries, because hydrogen is used to
hydrocrack fuels from crude oil. The IEA recommends existing industrial ports be used for production and natural gas pipelines for transport, international co-operation and shipping.
South Korea and
Japan
Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
, which as of 2019 lack international
electrical interconnectors, are investing in the
hydrogen economy
The hydrogen economy is an umbrella term for the roles hydrogen can play alongside low-carbon electricity to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The aim is to reduce emissions where cheaper and more energy-efficient clean solutions are not ava ...
. In March 2020, the
Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field was opened in Japan, claiming to be the world's largest hydrogen production facility.
Much of the site is occupied by a
solar array; power from the grid is also used for
electrolysis of water
Electrolysis of water is using electricity to Water splitting, split water into oxygen () and hydrogen () gas by electrolysis. Hydrogen gas released in this way can be used as hydrogen fuel, but must be kept apart from the oxygen as the mixture ...
to produce hydrogen fuel.
Network
Hydrogen highways and stations
A hydrogen highway is a chain of
hydrogen
Hydrogen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol H and atomic number 1. It is the lightest and abundance of the chemical elements, most abundant chemical element in the universe, constituting about 75% of all baryon, normal matter ...
-equipped
filling station
A filling station (also known as a gas station [] or petrol station []) is a facility that sells fuel and engine lubricants for motor vehicles. The most common fuels sold are gasoline (or petrol) and diesel fuel.
Fuel dispensers are used to ...
s and other infrastructure along a
road
A road is a thoroughfare used primarily for movement of traffic. Roads differ from streets, whose primary use is local access. They also differ from stroads, which combine the features of streets and roads. Most modern roads are paved.
Th ...
or
highway
A highway is any public or private road or other public way on land. It includes not just major roads, but also other public roads and rights of way. In the United States, it is also used as an equivalent term to controlled-access highway, or ...
which allow
hydrogen vehicle
A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen to move. Hydrogen vehicles include some road vehicles, rail vehicles, space rockets, forklifts, ships and aircraft. Motive power is generated by converting the chemical energy of hydrogen to me ...
s to travel.
Hydrogen stations that are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline get deliveries of
hydrogen tanks via
compressed hydrogen tube trailers,
liquid hydrogen trailers,
liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production. Government supported activities to expand hydrogen fuel infrastructure are ongoing in the US state of California, in some member states of the European Union, Japan and ellsewhere.
Hydrogen pipeline transport
Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a
pipe as part of the hydrogen infrastructure. Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to connect the point of
hydrogen production
Hydrogen gas is produced by several industrial methods. Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels. Article in press. Most hydrogen is ''gray hydrogen'' made through steam methane reforming. In this process, ...
or delivery of hydrogen with the point of demand, pipeline transport costs are similar to
CNG, the technology is proven, however most
hydrogen
Hydrogen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol H and atomic number 1. It is the lightest and abundance of the chemical elements, most abundant chemical element in the universe, constituting about 75% of all baryon, normal matter ...
is produced on the place of demand with every an industrial production facility. , there are of low pressure hydrogen pipelines in the US and in Europe.
According to a 2024 research report, the United States has 1,600 miles (2,570 kilometers) of hydrogen pipelines; the global total stands at 2,800 miles (4,500 kilometers).
The
World Economic Forum
The World Economic Forum (WEF) is an international non-governmental organization, international advocacy non-governmental organization and think tank, based in Cologny, Canton of Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded on 24 January 1971 by German ...
, in December 2023, estimated that Europe had approximately 1,600 kilometers of hydrogen pipelines.
Hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement (HE), also known as hydrogen-assisted cracking or hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), is a reduction in the ductility of a metal due to absorbed hydrogen. Hydrogen atoms are small and can Permeation, permeate solid metals. O ...
(a reduction in the
ductility
Ductility refers to the ability of a material to sustain significant plastic Deformation (engineering), deformation before fracture. Plastic deformation is the permanent distortion of a material under applied stress, as opposed to elastic def ...
of a metal due to absorbed hydrogen) is not a problem for hydrogen gas pipelines. Hydrogen embrittlement only happens with 'diffusible' hydrogen, i.e. atoms or ions. Hydrogen gas, however, is molecular (H
2), and there is a very significant
energy barrier to splitting it into atoms.
Hydrogen production plants
98% of hydrogen production uses the
steam reforming
Steam reforming or steam methane reforming (SMR) is a method for producing syngas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) by reaction of hydrocarbons with water. Commonly, natural gas is the feedstock. The main purpose of this technology is often hydrogen ...
method.
[ Methods such as ]electrolysis of water
Electrolysis of water is using electricity to Water splitting, split water into oxygen () and hydrogen () gas by electrolysis. Hydrogen gas released in this way can be used as hydrogen fuel, but must be kept apart from the oxygen as the mixture ...
are also used. The world's largest facility for producing electrolytic hydrogen fuel is claimed to be the Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R), a 10MW-class hydrogen production unit, inaugurated on 7 March 2020, in Namie, Fukushima Prefecture
is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region of Honshu. Fukushima Prefecture has a population of 1,771,100 () and has a geographic area of . Fukushima Prefecture borders Miyagi Prefecture and Yamagata Prefecture ...
. The site occupies 180,000 square meters of land, much of which is occupied by a solar array; but power from the grid is also used to conduct electrolysis of water
Electrolysis of water is using electricity to Water splitting, split water into oxygen () and hydrogen () gas by electrolysis. Hydrogen gas released in this way can be used as hydrogen fuel, but must be kept apart from the oxygen as the mixture ...
to produce hydrogen fuel.
Hydrogen pipeline transport
Hydrogen may be transported through pipes
Pipe(s), PIPE(S) or piping may refer to:
Objects
* Pipe (fluid conveyance), a hollow cylinder following certain dimension rules
** Piping, the use of pipes in industry
* Smoking pipe
** Tobacco pipe
* Half-pipe and quarter pipe, semi-circu ...
.
History
*1938 – Rhine-Ruhr
The Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region () is the Metropolitan regions in Germany, largest metropolitan region in Germany, with over ten million inhabitants. A wikt:polycentric, polycentric conurbation with several major urban concentrations, the reg ...
The first hydrogen pipes that are constructed of regular pipe steel, compressed hydrogen pressure , diameter . Still in operation.
*1973 – pipeline in Isbergues, France
France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
.
*1985 – Extension of the pipeline from Isbergues to Zeebrugge
Zeebrugge (; from , meaning "Bruges-on-Sea"; , ) is a village on the coast of Belgium and a subdivision of Bruges, for which it is the modern port. Zeebrugge serves as both the international port of Bruges-Zeebrugge and a seafront resort with ...
*1997 – Connection of the pipeline to Rotterdam
Rotterdam ( , ; ; ) is the second-largest List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city in the Netherlands after the national capital of Amsterdam. It is in the Provinces of the Netherlands, province of South Holland, part of the North S ...
*1997 – 2000: Development of two hydrogen networks, one near Corpus Christi, Texas
Texas ( , ; or ) is the most populous U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the we ...
, and one between Freeport and Texas City.
*2009 – extension of the pipeline from Plaquemine to Chalmette.
Economics
Hydrogen pipeline transport is sometimes used to transport hydrogen from the point of production or delivery to the point of demand. Although hydrogen pipeline transport is technologically mature, and the transport costs are similar to those of CNG, most hydrogen is produced in the place of demand, with an industrial production facility every
Piping
For process metal piping at pressures up to , high-purity stainless steel
Stainless steel, also known as inox, corrosion-resistant steel (CRES), or rustless steel, is an iron-based alloy that contains chromium, making it resistant to rust and corrosion. Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion comes from its chromi ...
piping with a maximum hardness of 80 HRB is preferred. This is because higher hardnesses are associated with lower fracture toughness
In materials science, fracture toughness is the critical stress intensity factor of a sharp Fracture, crack where propagation of the crack suddenly becomes rapid and unlimited. It is a material property that quantifies its ability to resist crac ...
so stronger, higher hardness steel is less safe.
Composite pipes are assessed like:
*carbon fiber
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (American English), carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers ( Commonwealth English), carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics, carbon-fiber reinforced-thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP), also known as carbon fiber, carbon comp ...
structure with fiberglass
Fiberglass (American English) or fibreglass (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English) is a common type of fibre-reinforced plastic, fiber-reinforced plastic using glass fiber. The fibers may be randomly arranged, flattened i ...
overla
.
* perfluoroalkoxy (PFA, MFA).
*polytetrafluoroethylene
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene, and has numerous applications because it is chemically inert. The commonly known brand name of PTFE-based composition is Teflon by Chemours, a corporate spin-of ...
(PTFE)
*fluorinated ethylene propylene
Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) is a copolymer of hexafluoropropylene and tetrafluoroethylene. It differs from the polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) resins in that it is melt-processable using conventional injection molding and Plastic extrusio ...
(FEP
*carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (American English), carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers ( Commonwealth English), carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics, carbon-fiber reinforced-thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP), also known as carbon fiber, carbon comp ...
s (FRP)
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer pipelines (or FRP pipeline) and reinforced thermoplastic pipes are researched.
Carrying hydrogen in steel pipelines (grades: API5L-X42 and X52; up to 1,000psi/7,000kPa, constant pressure/low pressure cycling) does not lead to hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement (HE), also known as hydrogen-assisted cracking or hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), is a reduction in the ductility of a metal due to absorbed hydrogen. Hydrogen atoms are small and can Permeation, permeate solid metals. O ...
. Hydrogen is typically stored in steel cylinders without problems.
Infrastructure
*2024: USA – of low pressure hydrogen pipelines
*2024: Europe – of low pressure hydrogen pipelines.
Hydrogen highway
A hydrogen highway is a chain of hydrogen
Hydrogen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol H and atomic number 1. It is the lightest and abundance of the chemical elements, most abundant chemical element in the universe, constituting about 75% of all baryon, normal matter ...
-equipped public filling stations
A filling station (also known as a gas station [] or petrol station []) is a facility that sells fuel and engine lubricants for motor vehicles. The most common fuels sold are gasoline (or petrol) and diesel fuel.
Fuel dispensers are used to ...
, along a road or highway, that allows hydrogen powered cars to travel. William Clay Ford Jr
William Clay Ford Jr. (born May 3, 1957) is an American businessman, serving as executive chair of Ford Motor Company. The great-grandson of company founder Henry Ford, Ford joined the board in 1988 and has served as chair since January 1999. F ...
. has stated that infrastructure is one of three factors (also including costs and manufacturability in high volumes) that hold back the marketability of fuel cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen fuel, hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most bat ...
cars.
Supply issues, cost and pollution
Hydrogen fueling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by tanker truck from hydrogen suppliers.[ An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fueling stations. A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.
As of 2019, 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide.]["Realising the hydrogen economy"]
, ''Power Technology'', October 11, 2019 The bulk of hydrogen is also transported in trucks, so pollution is emitted in its transportation.["Transportable Hydrogen Dispensing"]
, Protium.aero, May 2, 2016
Hydrogen station
A hydrogen station is a storage or filling station
A filling station (also known as a gas station [] or petrol station []) is a facility that sells fuel and engine lubricants for motor vehicles. The most common fuels sold are gasoline (or petrol) and diesel fuel.
Fuel dispensers are used to ...
for hydrogen fuel. The hydrogen is dispensed by weight. There are two filling pressures in common use: H70 or 700 bar, and the older standard H35 or 350 bar. , around 550 filling stations were available worldwide. According to H2stations.org by Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik (LBST), as of the end of 2023, there were 921 hydrogen refueling stations globally, although this number clearly conflicts with those published by AFDC. The distribution of these stations is highly uneven, with a concentration in East Asia, particularly in China, Japan and South Korea; Central Europe and California in the United States. Other regions have very few, if any, hydrogen refuelling stations.
Delivery methods
Hydrogen fueling stations can be divided into off-site stations, where hydrogen is delivered by truck or pipeline, and on-site stations that produce and compress hydrogen for the vehicles.["Transportable Hydrogen Dispensing"]
, Protium.aero, May 2, 2016
Types of recharging stations
Home hydrogen fueling station
Home hydrogen fueling stations are available to consumers. A model that can produce 12 kilograms of hydrogen per day sells for $325,000.
Solar powered water electrolysing hydrogen home stations are composed of solar cell
A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect. s, power converter, water purifier, electrolyzer
In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of elements from n ...
, piping, hydrogen purifier, oxygen purifier, compressor
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor.
Many compressors can be staged, that is, the gas is compressed several times in steps o ...
, pressure vessel
A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure.
Construction methods and materials may be chosen to suit the pressure application, and will depend on the size o ...
s and a hydrogen outlet.
Disadvantages
Volatility
Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of its low ignition energy, high combustion energy, and because it easily leaks from tanks. Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported.
Supply
Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries by truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations due to an interruption of the supply of hydrogen.
Costs
There are far fewer Hydrogen filling stations than gasoline fuel stations, which in the US alone numbered 168,000 in 2004. Replacing the US gasoline infrastructure with hydrogen fuel infrastructure is estimated to cost a half trillion
''Trillion'' is a number with two distinct definitions:
*1,000,000,000,000, i.e. one million 1,000,000, million, or (ten to the twelfth Exponentiation, power), as defined on the long and short scales, short scale. This is now the meaning in bot ...
U.S. dollars. A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build. In comparison, battery electric vehicles can charge at home or at public chargers. As of 2023, there are more than 60,000 public charging stations in the United States, with more than 160,000 outlets. A public Level 2 charger, which comprise the majority of public chargers in the US, costs about $2,000, and DC fast chargers, of which there are more than 30,000 in the U.S., generally cost between $100,000 and $250,000, although Tesla superchargers are estimated to cost approximately $43,000.
Freezing of the nozzle
During refueling, the flow of cold hydrogen can cause frost to form on the dispenser nozzle, sometimes leading to the nozzle becoming frozen to the vehicle being refueled.
Locations
Consulting firm Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik tracks global hydrogen filling stations and publishes a map.
Asia
In 2019, there were 178 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation.
, there are 167 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in Japan. In 2012 there were 17 hydrogen stations, and in 2021, there were 137 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Japan.
By the end of 2023, China had built 354 hydrogen refueling stations.
In 2019, there were 33 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in South Korea. In November 2023, however, due to hydrogen supply problems and broken stations, most fueling stations in South Korea offered no hydrogen. 41 out of the 159 hydrogen stations in the country were listed as open, and some of these were rationing supplies of hydrogen.
Europe
In 2019, there were 177 stations in Europe. According to H2stations.org by Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik (LBST), there were 265 hydrogen refuelling stations in Europe by the end of 2023.
there were 105 hydrogen fuel stations in Germany, there were 5 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in France, 3 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Iceland, one publicly available hydrogen fuel station in Italy, 4 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in The Netherlands, 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Belgium, 4 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Sweden, 3 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Switzerland and 6 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Denmark. Everfuel, the only operator of hydrogen stations in Denmark, announced in 2023 the closure of all of its public hydrogen stations in the country.["Everfuel Decided to Restructure the Hydrogen Station Network Due to Current Immature Hydrogen Mobility Market and Technology, Closing Refuelling Stations"]
''Hydrogen Central'', September 15, 2023
there were 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Norway, both in the Oslo area. Since the explosion at the hydrogen filling station in Sandvika
Sandvika () is the administrative centre of the municipality of Bærum in Norway. It was declared a List of cities in Norway, city by the municipal council (Norway), municipal council in Bærum on 4 June 2003.
Sandvika is situated approximately ...
in June 2019, the sale of hydrogen cars in Norway has halted. In 2023, Everfuel announced the closure of its two public hydrogen stations in Norway and cancelled the opening of a third.[ In 2024 Shell discontinued its hydrogen fuel projects in Norway.
there were 11 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in the United Kingdom,] but as of 2023, the number decreased to 5. In 2022, Shell closed its three hydrogen stations in the UK,
North America
=Canada
=
As of May 2025, there were 7 fueling stations in Canada, 6 of which were open to the public:
* British Columbia: Five stations are in the Greater Vancouver Area and Vancouver Island, with one station in Kelowna
Kelowna ( ) is a city on Okanagan Lake in the Okanagan, Okanagan Valley in the British Columbia Interior, southern interior of British Columbia, Canada. It serves as the head office of the Regional District of Central Okanagan. The name Kelowna ...
.[ All are operated by HTEC (co-branded with ]Esso
Esso () is a trading name for ExxonMobil. Originally, the name was primarily used by its predecessor Standard Oil of New Jersey after the breakup of the original Standard Oil company in 1911. The company adopted the name "Esso" (from the phon ...
).
* Ontario: One station in Mississauga
Mississauga is a Canadian city in the province of Ontario. Situated on the north-western shore of Lake Ontario in the Regional Municipality of Peel, it borders Toronto (Etobicoke) to the east, Brampton to the north, Milton to the northwest, ...
is operated by Hydrogenics Corporation. The station is only available to certain commercial customers.
* Quebec: The one station in Quebec City
Quebec City is the capital city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Quebec. As of July 2021, the city had a population of 549,459, and the Census Metropolitan Area (including surrounding communities) had a populati ...
is operated by Harnois Énergies (co-branded with Esso).[
]
=United States
=
, there were 54 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 53 of which were located in California, with one in Hawaii.[Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State](_blank)
''Alternative Fuels Data Center'', accessed July 4, 2024.
*California: there were 53 retail stations and 3 non-retail stations. Continued state funding for hydrogen refueling stations is uncertain. In 2023, Shell closed its hydrogen stations in the state and discontinued plans to build further stations. In 2024 it was reported that "a majority of the hydrogen stations in Southern California are offline or operating with reduced hours" due to hydrogen shortages and unreliable station performance.
*Hawaii has one hydrogen station in Honolulu
Honolulu ( ; ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Hawaii, located in the Pacific Ocean. It is the county seat of the Consolidated city-county, consolidated City and County of Honol ...
.
*Michigan: In 2000, the Ford Motor Company
Ford Motor Company (commonly known as Ford) is an American multinational corporation, multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, United States. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. T ...
and Air Products & Chemicals opened the first hydrogen station in North America in Dearborn, MI. no publicly accessible stations were in operation in Michigan.
*Texas: There is one non-retail station in Austin, Texas.
Oceania
In 2021, the first Australian publicly available hydrogen fuel station opened in Canberra
Canberra ( ; ) is the capital city of Australia. Founded following the Federation of Australia, federation of the colonies of Australia as the seat of government for the new nation, it is Australia's list of cities in Australia, largest in ...
, operated by ActewAGL.
Hydrogen tank
A hydrogen tank (other names- cartridge or canister) is used for hydrogen storage. The first type IV hydrogen tanks for compressed hydrogen at were demonstrated in 2001, the first fuel cell vehicles on the road with type IV tanks are the Toyota FCHV, Mercedes-Benz F-Cell and the GM HydroGen4.
Low-pressure tanks
Various applications have allowed the development of different H2 storage scenarios.
Recently, the Hy-Can consortium has introduced a small one liter, format. Horizon Fuel Cells is now selling a refillable metal hydride form factor for consumer use called HydroStik.
Type I
* Metal tank (steel/aluminum)
* Approximate maximum pressures: aluminum , steel .
Type II
* Aluminum tank with filament windings such as glass fiber/aramid
Aramid fibers, short for aromatic polyamide, are a class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers. They are used in aerospace and military applications, for ballistic-rated bulletproof vest, body armor cloth, fabric and ballistic composites ...
or carbon fiber
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (American English), carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers ( Commonwealth English), carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics, carbon-fiber reinforced-thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP), also known as carbon fiber, carbon comp ...
around the metal cylinder. See composite overwrapped pressure vessel.
* Approximate maximum pressures: aluminum/glass , steel/carbon or aramide .
Type III
* Tanks made from composite material, fiberglass
Fiberglass (American English) or fibreglass (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English) is a common type of fibre-reinforced plastic, fiber-reinforced plastic using glass fiber. The fibers may be randomly arranged, flattened i ...
/aramid
Aramid fibers, short for aromatic polyamide, are a class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers. They are used in aerospace and military applications, for ballistic-rated bulletproof vest, body armor cloth, fabric and ballistic composites ...
or carbon fiber
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (American English), carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers ( Commonwealth English), carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics, carbon-fiber reinforced-thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP), also known as carbon fiber, carbon comp ...
with a metal liner (aluminum or steel).
* Approximate maximum pressures: aluminum/glass , aluminum/aramid , aluminium/carbon .
Type IV
* Composite tanks such of carbon fiber with a polymer liner (thermoplastic
A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening plastic, is any plastic polymer material that becomes pliable or moldable at a certain elevated temperature and solidifies upon cooling.
Most thermoplastics have a high molecular weight. The polymer chains as ...
). See rotational molding
Rotational molding (BrE: moulding) involves a heated mold which is filled with a charge or shot weight of the material. It is then slowly rotated (usually around two perpendicular axes), causing the softened material to disperse and stick to t ...
and fibre-reinforced plastic.
* Approximate maximum pressure: .
Type V
* All-composite, linerless tank. Composites Technology Development (Colorado, USA) built a prototype tank for a satellite application in 2010 although it had an operating pressure of only 200 psi and was used to store argon.
* Approximate maximum pressure: .
Tank testing and safety considerations
In accordance with ISO/TS 15869 (revised):
* Burst test: the pressure at which the tank bursts, typically more than 2× the working pressure.
* Proof pressure: the pressure at which the test will be executed, typically above the working pressure.
* Leak test or permeation test, in NmL/hr/L (Normal liter of H2/time in hr/volume of the tank.)
* Fatigue test, typically several thousand cycles of charging/emptying.
* Bonfire test where the tank is exposed to an open fire.
* Bullet test where live ammunition is fired at the tank.
This specification was replaced by ISO 13985:2006 and only applies to liquid hydrogen tanks.
Actual Standard EC 79/2009
* U.S. Department of Energy maintains a hydrogen safety best practices site with a lot of information about tanks and piping. They dryly observe "Hydrogen is a very small molecule with low viscosity, and therefore prone to leakage.".
Metal hydride storage tank
Magnesium hydride
Using magnesium for hydrogen storage, a safe but weighty reversible storage technology. Typically the pressure requirement are limited to .
The charging process generates heat whereas the discharge process will require some heat to release the H2 contained in the storage material. To activate these types of hydrides, at the current state of development you need to reach approximately .
Other hydrides
See also sodium aluminium hydride
Research
* 2008 - Japan, a clay-based film sandwiched between prepregs of CFRP.Development of a Clay-Plastic Composite Material with Good Hydrogen Gas Barrier Property
See also
* Hydrogen leak testing
* Hydrogen sensor
* Gas cylinder
A gas cylinder is a pressure vessel for storage and containment of gases at above atmospheric pressure. Gas storage cylinders may also be called ''bottles''. Inside the cylinder the stored contents may be in a state of compressed gas, vapor ov ...
* Hydrogen compressor
A hydrogen compressor is a device that increases the pressure of hydrogen by reducing its volume resulting in compressed hydrogen or liquid hydrogen.
Traditionally, applications for hydrogen compressors included Chlorine electrolyser and many chem ...
* Liquid hydrogen
Liquid hydrogen () is the liquid state of the element hydrogen. Hydrogen is found naturally in the molecule, molecular H2 form.
To exist as a liquid, H2 must be cooled below its critical point (thermodynamics), critical point of 33 Kelvins, ...
References
Sources
*
External links
Hydrogen Embrittlement group
California Hydrogen Highway
Hydrogen Highway, Norway to Germany
Interactive map of hydrogen stations in Europe and worldwide
Interactive map of hydrogen stations in Europe and worldwide
(includes non-public stations)
H2Map.com
Map of hydrogen refueling stations in the UK
H2stations.org
Map of hydrogen refueling stations worldwide (GIS)
California Fuel Cell Partnership Map
Map of hydrogen fueling stations in California, with real-time status reports
EUhyfis
Industrial gases
Hydrogen storage
Pressure vessels
Pipeline transport
Piping
Hydrogen technologies
Road infrastructure
Hydrogen economy
Filling stations
Sustainable transport
Gas technologies
{{HydrogenDelivery