Introduction
Japanese uses honorific constructions to show or emphasize social rank, social intimacy or similarity in rank. The choice of pronoun used, for example, will express the social relationship between the person speaking and the person being referred to, and Japanese often avoids pronouns entirely in favor of more explicit titles or kinship terms. Honorific speech is often longer, and sometimes much longer, than more direct speech. Some extreme, but not uncommon, examples include the following: When asking a question: the first is casually between friends, the second is a junior person asking a superior in a formal meeting: *いていい？ ::''Kiite ii?'' :::Ok to ask (a question)? *かせていただけるとしいのですが。 ::''Kikasete-itadakeru to ureshii no desu ga.'' :::I would, however, be delighted if I may be permitted to ask (a question). When asking for cooperation: the first is usual and polite, the latter is very formal, but often found in writing, especially in posters or flyers. *ごさい。 ::''Go-kyōryoku-kudasai.'' :::Your cooperation, please. *ごのおいしげます。 ::''Go-kyōryoku no hodo o-negai mōshiagemasu.'' :::We respectfully request the favor of a measure of your cooperation. This latter example includes two honorific prefixes, nominalization of a verb (for formality), a respectful form, and two humble forms.Types of honorifics
Honorifics in Japanese, or , fall under three main categories: , , and , also translated as modest language. is more rarely called , being an alternative word for "humility, modesty". Linguistically the first is an addressee honorific, used for someone being talked ''to'', and the latter two are referent honorifics, used for someone being talked ''about''. Sometimes two more categories are also used, for a total of five categories: and , but more often these are included in the above three: ''teichōgo'' as a kind of humble language, ''bikago'' as a kind of polite language. These two other categories use the same forms as the general categories, but are used in different contexts, and therefore are differentiated by some linguists. Each type of speech has its own vocabulary and verb endings. For example, the standard form of the verb "to do" is . This form is appropriate with family members and close friends. The polite form of , the addressee honorific, is . This form is appropriate in most daily interactions. When showing respect, such as when talking about a customer or a superior, however, the respectful word and its polite form ''nasaimasu'' are used, and when referring to one's own actions or the actions of a group member, the humble word ''itasu'' and its polite form ''itashimasu'' are used. These respectful and humble words are referent honorifics, and thus can coexist with addressee honorific ''-masu''.Polite language
is characterized by the use of the sentence ending ''desu'' (です) and the verb ending ''masu'' (ます) and the use of prefixes such as ''o'' (お) and ''go'' (ご) towards neutral objects. Television presenters invariably use polite language, and it is the form of the language first taught to most non-native learners of Japanese. Polite language can be used to refer to one's own actions or those of other people.Respectful language
is a special form or alternative word used when talking about superiors and customers. It is not used to talk about oneself. For example, when a Japanese hairdresser or dentist requests their client to take a seat, they say "O-kake ni natte kudasai" (「おけになってください」) to mean "Please sit down". However, they would use the verb rather than "O-kake ni naru" (「おけになる」) to refer to themselves sitting down. The respectful version of language can only be used to refer to others. In general, respectful language is directed at those in positions of power; for example, a superior at work, or a customer. It also implies that the speaker is acting in a professional capacity. It is characterized by lengthy polite expressions. Common verbs may be replaced by more polite alternative verbs, for example, する, ''suru'' (do) by なさる, ''nasaru'', or 話す, ''hanasu'' (talk) by おっしゃる ''ossharu'' when the subject is a person of respect. Some of these transformations are many-to-one: く, ''iku'' (go), る, ''kuru'' (come), and いる, ''iru'' (be) all become いらっしゃる, ''irassharu'', and べる, ''taberu'' (eat) and む, ''nomu'' (drink) both become しがる, ''meshiagaru''. Verbs may also be changed to respectful forms. One respectful form is a modification of the verb with a prefix and a polite suffix. For example, む, ''yomu'' (read) becomes ''o-yomi ni naru'', with the prefix ''o-'' added to the i-form of the verb, and the verb ending ''ni naru''. The verb ending ''-(r)areru'' can also be used, such as ''yomareru''. Nouns also undergo substitution to express respect. The normal Japanese word for person becomes in respectful language. Thus, a customer would normally be expected to be referred to as a ''kata'' rather than a ''hito''.Humble language
In general, humble language is used when describing one's actions or the actions of a person in one's in-group to others such as customers in business. Humble language tends to imply that one's actions are taking place in order to assist the other person. is similar to respectful language, in substituting verbs with other forms. For example: ''suru'' (do) becomes ''itasu'', and ''morau'' (receive) becomes ''itadaku''. These two verbs are also seen in set phrases such as ''dō itashimashite'' (you're welcome) and '' itadakimasu'' (いただきます—a phrase said before eating or drinking). Similar to respectful language, verbs can also change their form by adding a prefix and the verb "suru" or "itasu". For example, ''motsu'' (carry) becomes ''o mochi shimasu''. The use of humble forms may imply doing something for the other person; thus a Japanese person might offer to carry something for someone else by saying ''o mochi shimasu''. This type of humble form also appears in the set phrase ''o matase shimashita'', "I am sorry to have kept you waiting", from ''mataseru'' (make wait) with the addition of ''o'' and ''shimasu''. Similarly, ''o negai shimasu'', "please o this, from ''negau'' (request or hope for), again with the addition of ''o'' and ''shimasu''. Even more politely, the form ''motasete itadaku'' literally means "humbly be allowed to carry". This phrase would be used to express the idea that "I will carry it if you please." A distinction may also be made between humble speech where the intent is to raise up the recipient of an action, and where there is no specific recipient of the action, lowering the speaker instead with respect to the listener, as in the common phrase 電車が参ります (''densha ga mairimasu'' "a train is arriving") at rail stations. In the case, the train itself (as an extension of the railway company) is not lowered with respect to a specific recipient of the action of arrival; the humble language is merely a courtesy to the passengers hearing the announcement, whom the company is raising up by lowering itself. Some linguists distinguish this from kenjōgo (whose purpose is to raise up the recipient of a polite action by lowering the speaker), calling it instead teichōgo (丁重語) "courteous language", and defining it formally as: :Honorifics by which the Speaker shows consideration to the hearer through all expressions of the subject matter. This category was first proposed by Hiroshi Miyachi (宮地裕). Teichōgo, as an addressee honorific, is always used with the teineigo (''-masu'') form, the politeness sequence (using "go" as an example) being 行く, 行きます, 参ります (''iku'', ''ikimasu'', ''mairimasu''). In humble language, name suffixes are dropped when referring to people from inside one's group. Thus, Japanese-speaking company executives would introduce themselves and their team by saying "I am Gushiken, the president, and this is Niwa, the CEO", dropping the honorific that would otherwise be expected when referring to another person. Similarly to respectful language, nouns can also change. The word , meaning "person", becomes . The humble version is used when referring to oneself or members of one's group, such as one's company; when humble language is split into the dual classification above, this is a kind of teichōgo (丁重語) as a courtesy to the out-group listener.Respectful verbs
:1 The distinction between these three verbs is lost in some respectful forms. :2 Both are the humble form of ; it can also be used for related verbs like and .Word beautification
Word beautification (, , "beautified speech", in also sometimes , , "elegant speech") is the practice of making words more polite or "beautiful". This form of language is employed by the speaker to add refinement to one's manner of speech. Patricia Wetzel has pointed out that many of the Japanese grammarians who write about "beautification" are not talking about a set of specific forms in Japanese, but rather the pragmatic function of much of keigo that helps the person using it sound cultured or sophisticated. One aspect of keigo is adding the prefix or to a word and used in conjunction with the polite form of verbs. In the following example, before and and the polite form of the verb are used to this effect. Generally is used before native Japanese words and is used before Sino-Japanese words, but there are exceptions. : : : Tea and rice crackers go well (together), don't they? In finer classifications, the above example is classified as word beautification—rather than honorific speech—as the speaker is voicing a ''general opinion'' regarding tea and rice crackers and is not intentionally deferential towards the ''listener''. In the following example, the speaker is directly referring to the listener and items received by them and is regarded as honorific language: : : : The sweets you gave me were most delectable. See the section on honorific prefixes, below, for further discussion.Usage
Business
Honorifics are considered extremely important in a business setting. Training in honorifics usually does not take place at school or university, so company trainees are trained in correct use of honorifics to customers and superiors.In groups and out groups
When using polite or respectful forms, the point of view of the speaker is shared by the speaker's ''in-group'' (内 ''uchi''), so in-group referents do not take honorifics. For example, members of one's own company are referred to with humble forms when speaking with an external person; similarly, family members of the speaker are referred to humbly when speaking to guests. Similarly, the ''out-group'' (外 ''soto'') addressee or referent is always mentioned in the polite style (though not necessarily with honorifics). Mastery of politeness and honorifics is important for functioning in Japanese society. Not speaking politely enough can be insulting, and speaking too politely can be distancing (and therefore also insulting) or seem sarcastic. Children generally speak using plain informal speech, but they are expected to master politeness and honorifics by the end of their teenage years. Recent trends indicate that the importance of proper politeness is not as high as before, particularly in metropolitan areas. The standards are inconsistently applied towards foreigners, though most textbooks attempt to teach the polite style before considering to teach any of the other styles.Intrafamilial address
Similar to how titles are used instead of personal pronouns when addressing a person of higher status, roles and kinship terms are used in intrafamilial settings where one can refer to other family members by using their role in relation to the speaker instead of a personal pronoun. For example, older relatives cannot be addressed as ''anata'', ''kimi'' or simply by their name alone. Instead, a term denoting their relationship with the speaker or their name suffixed by an appropriate kinship term is used, such as ''otōsan'' when speaking to one's father. Those younger than the speaker can generally be addressed by using personal pronouns or their name. Thus, the choice of whether a family member can be addressed by using a personal pronoun, their name or their role is dependent on the position of the speaker within the family.Gender differences
Depending on the situation, women's speech may contain more honorifics than men's. In particular, in informal settings, women are more likely to use polite vocabulary and honorific prefixes, such as to mean "eat rice", whereas men may use less polite vocabulary such as with exactly the same meaning. This is part of a general pattern of speech differences by sex. However, in many settings, such as in customer service, there will be little or no difference between male and female speech.Grammatical overview
Japanese has grammatical functions to express several different pragmatic registers. Not only ''politeness'' but also ''respectfulness'', ''humility'' and ''formality'' can be expressed.Expressing politeness
There are three levels of politeness, ''plain'' or ''direct'' ( ''futsūtai'' or 常体 ''jōtai''), ''polite'' or ''distal'' (敬体 ''keitai'' or 丁寧 ''teinei''), and ''formal'' (generally, 敬語 ''keigo'' or 最敬体 ''saikeitai''). Formal and polite can be combined. For example, for the sentence "This is a book", The informal style is used among friends, the distal or polite style by inferiors when addressing superiors and among strangers or casual acquaintances, and the formal style generally in writing or prepared speeches. The plain formal and informal styles of verbs are nearly identical, with a few grammatical differences, such as the verb ''de aru'' being used as a formal copula, and the preferential usage of verb stems to connect clauses instead of the "te form". Formal language in Japanese also uses different vocabulary and structures from informal language. In some contexts, where both the imperfective (incomplete: present/future) and perfective (complete: past) tenses are acceptable, the perfective is considered more polite. This is only at the completion of an activity; common examples are ありがとうございました ''arigatō gozaimashita'' "thank you (for a completed favor)", ご馳走様でした ''go-chisō-sama deshita'' "it was a feast (for a completed meal)", 失礼しました ''shitsurei shimashita'' "I have been rude (when leaving, after a visit)". For example, when entering someone's office, one conventionally says 失礼します ''shitsurei shimasu,'' as the visit is not complete yet, while when exiting one may say either ''shitsurei shimasu'' or, more politely, 失礼しました ''shitsurei shimashita.'' Many phrases cannot be used in the perfective in this way, as the referent is as yet incomplete. For example, the standard greeting お早うございます ''ohayō gozaimasu'' "Good morning" (lit. "It is early") cannot be said as ×お早うございました *''ohayō gozaimashita'' "It was early", as it is used only during the morning.Expressing respect
Further to this, there is another factor, respect, which is indicated in yet other ways. For each politeness level there are two . #The form shows respect to the subject of the sentence. #The form gives respect to the ('' direct'' or '' indirect'') ''object'' or to the ''listener'' by a variety of means, the most common being to humble the speaker. These respectful forms are represented by different verb endings. Since verbs come at the end of the sentence in Japanese, most of the factors of formality, politeness, and respect are expressed at the very end of each sentence. The ''o-machi-suru'' humble forms carry an implication that the waiting or other activity is being (humbly) done by the speaker for the benefit of the person being addressed. Thus a ''humble'' sentence is unlikely to take a third person subject. For example, a sentence like ''jon ga sensei o o machi suru'' (John waits for the teacher) is unlikely to occur.Honorific titles
Requests
Japanese requests and commands have many set forms depending on who is being addressed by whom. For example, the phrase , can take various forms. At the bottom of the scale comes :よろしくむ :''yoroshiku tanomu'' which might be used between male friends. Its more polite variant :よろしくみます :''yoroshiku tanomimasu'' might be used towards less familiar people or to superiors. Going up in politeness, the phrase :よろしくおいします :''yoroshiku o-negai shimasu'' means the same thing, but is used in business settings. It is possible to go further, replacing the polite with the humble , to get :よろしくおいします :''yoroshiku o-negai itashimasu''. In extremely formal Japanese, such as that used on New Year's greeting cards, this may be replaced with an even more polite expression :よろしくおいしげます :''yoroshiku o-negai mōshiagemasu''. When making requests, at the bottom of the politeness scale comes the plain imperative or , literally "Eat!", a simple order to be said to an inferior or someone considered to have no choice, such as a prisoner. This form might convey anger. Similarly, the suffix can make an order: , or , "Eat!". To express anger, the suffix also exists: , an extremely forceful and angry instruction to eat, expressing contempt for the addressee. Negatives are formed by adding suffix ''na'': ''taberu na'' "do not eat", ''gomi o suteru na'': "do not throw away rubbish". Similarly, the negative of ''da'', ''ja nai'', can be used: ''taberu n ja nai''. More polite, but still strict, is the ''nasai'' suffix, which attaches to the i-form of the verb. This originates in the polite verb ''nasaru''. ''Tabenasai'' thus is an order perhaps given by a parent to a child. This is often colloquially shortened to ''na'', hence ''tabena''. This form has no grammatical negative. Requests can also be formed by adding to the "te" form of a verb. The plainest form adds ''kure'', an irregular form of the verb ''kureru'', to the te form. For example, ''tabete kure'' or ''kutte kure'': "eat it", less forceful than "tabero". Negatives are made by using the negative "te" form: ''tabenaide kure'' or ''kuwanaide kure'' "don't eat it". Going up one scale in politeness, the more polite verb ''kudasai'' is added. For example, ''tabete kudasai''. With this polite form, the rough ''kū'' verb is unlikely to be used. Similarly, ''tabenaide kudasai'': "please don't eat it". A similar entry on the scale of politeness is made by using the imperative form of a polite verb. For example, ''meshiagaru'', the polite verb for "to eat", when turned into ''meshiagare'', the imperative, becomes the response to the set phrase ''itadakimasu''. Further, more polite forms are also possible. These involve the "i-form" of the verb rather than the "te form", and an honorific prefix (see honorific prefixes: verbs, below). Beyond simply increased politeness, this form is more formal, and is used when addressing a group, or as a general instruction, rather than directed at a particular person. For example, ''tsukau'', "use", becomes ''o tsukai kudasai'': "please use this". In the case of phrasal verbs the honorific ''o'' appears before the entire phrase, not simply the verb, as in , from . Politeness can be carried even further by conjugating kudasaru into its masu form and using the imperative, which becomes "o tsukai kudasaimase." The most polite form of this would probably be along the lines of "o tsukai ni natte itadakimasen deshou ka." "You will probably not bestow the favor of honorably using this?" Language like this, however, is rarely used. Other ways to increase politeness involve indirection of the request: ''kore o tsukau you ni o negai shimasu'': "I humbly request that you think about using this".Honorific prefixes
The ''bikago'' (beautifying) prefixes ''o-'' (お〜) and ''go-'' (ご〜) (both written with the character 御- inPrefix usage
Although these honorific prefixes are often translated into English as "honorable" ("o-denwa," for example, would be given as "the honorable telephone") this translation is unwieldy and cannot convey the true feeling of their use in Japanese. These prefixes are essentially untranslatable, but their use indicates a polite respect for the item named or the person to or about whom one is speaking. A shorter translation is "dear"—for example, ''o-ko-san'', お子さん, translates idiomatically as "your dear child"—and a similar sentiment is expressed in such English expressions as "Would you '' care for a spot of'' tea?" or "Would you ''care for a little'' tea?" (as opposed to the plain "Would you ''like some'' tea?"). As with honorific word forms and titles, honorific prefixes are used when referring to or speaking with a social superior, or speaking about a superior's actions or possessions, but not usually when referring to oneself or one's own actions or possessions, or those of one's in-group. For example, when referring to one's own order at a restaurant, one would use ''chūmon'', but when referring to a customer's order, the restaurant staff would use ''go-chūmon''. Similarly, ''kazoku'' means "my family," while ''go-kazoku'' means "your family" (or, broadly speaking, someone else's family). There are some words which frequently or always take these prefixes, regardless of who is speaking and to whom; these are often ordinary items which may have particular cultural significance, such as tea (''o-cha'') and rice (''go-han''). The word ''meshi'', the Japanese equivalent of Sino-Japanese ''go-han'', is considered rough and masculine ( 男性語). The honorific ''o-'' is also sometimes attached to of native verbs (hence native ''o-'') to refer to a specific item associated with the verb, as in oshibori (お絞り、絞る) "hot towel", and onigiri/omusubi (お握り、握る and お結び、結ぶ) "rice ball". In rare cases, both a base form and honorific are in use with different readings. A notable example is 利益 ''ri-eki'' "benefit, profit (e.g., business)" and 御利益 ''go-ri-yaku'' "divine favor, grace"; plain ''ri-yaku'' is sometimes used, but ''go-ri-eki'' is generally not. The former, an everyday term, uses the usual kan-on reading, while the later, a specialized religious term, uses the older go-on reading. Honorific prefixes can be used for other items, possibly for a comic or sarcastic effect (for example, ''o-kokakōra'', "honorable Coca-Cola"). Overuse of honorific prefixes may be taken as pretentious or simpering, and, as with other polite speech, they are more used by women than men. In tea ceremony, common ingredients and equipment always take the honorific ''o-'' or ''go-'', including water (''o-mizu''), hot water (''o-yu''), and tea bowls (''o-chawan''). However, these terms are often heard in daily life as well. Foreign loanwords ( gairaigo, except those that come from Chinese; see above) seldom take honorifics, but when they do ''o-'' seems to be preferable to ''go-''. Examples are ''o-bīru'' (''bīru'': beer), which can sometimes be heard at restaurants, ''o-kādo'' (''kādo'': card, as in credit card or point card), which is often heard at supermarkets and department stores, and ''o-sōsu'' (''sōsu'': sauce).Verbs
For verbs, a respectful request—or rather a polite command—addressed to a group may be formed by using 御〜, followed by the ''masu''-stem (連用形), followed by . For Chinese verbs (kango + ''suru''), the prefix is generally pronounced ''go-,'' while for native Japanese verbs the prefix is pronounced ''o-.'' This is generally written in kana. The most commonly heard use is (Chinese verb), which is used pervasively in recorded announcement in Japan (escalators, trains and subways, turning trucks), but other verbs are also used frequently, such as (Japanese verb). The respectful prefix can also be used in honorific verbs, when speaking about a superior, in which case it is formed by ''o-,'' followed by the ''masu''-stem, followed by (suitably conjugated), as in .Female names
''O-'' was also commonly used as an honorific prefix to female given names in pre-war Japan, particularly in combination with dropping common suffixes such as -ko (-こ) (-子, literally "child"). For example, would be referred to as , would become , would become , and so on. This was a less polite honorific than "san". For example, a female servant named ''Kikuko'' would be referred to as ''O-kiku'' rather than ''Kikuko-san''. This usage has disappeared in current Japanese, and has been replaced by using the diminutive suffix ''-chan'' instead (compare to male ''-kun''), as in ''Aki-chan'' for ''Akiko''.Rare forms
There is also a rarer prefix ''mi-'' (kun'yomi), which is mostly used in words related to gods and the emperor, such as ''mi-koshi'' (御輿, "portable shrine" in Shinto) and ''mi-na'' (御名, "the Holy Name" inEnglish analogs
While English has different registers, its levels of formality and politeness are not as formalized or as clearly defined as in Japanese. However, they can be instructive in gaining a feel for Japanese speech. English imperatives range from very blunt ("Give me the book"), to very indirect and elaborate ("If it's not too much trouble, could you please be so kind as to pass me the book?"—note the use of potential form, as in Japanese). Similarly, changes in word use can make language more flowery or respectful—rather than "Do you know?", one might say "Are you familiar with?" or "Are you acquainted with?", which convey some of the feel of 知る ''shiru'' versus ご存知だ ''go-zonji da''. In English, words of Germanic origin are generally plainer, those from French are generally more flowery (compare "drink" versus "beverage"), and those from Latin are more formal and technical (see Anglish and related articles); similarly in Japanese, words of Japanese origin are plainer, while words of Chinese origin are more formal. These are not hard-and-fast rules, but they give a feel for the gradations. Humble language is less common in modern English, but is found in some contexts, such as guests saying "I am ''honored'' to be here," (rather than "I am ''glad'' to be here" or "I am ''happy'' to be here") and in various valedictions such as "Sincerely", which were formerly more formal and humble, with such forms as "I am, Sir, your most humble and obedient servant," and the like. Some scholars argue that while honorific usage is necessarily affected by culturally specific values systems, the linguistic principles regulating its usage are not necessarily distinct from those of other languages, including honorific-poor languages such as English.Manual keigo
Some convenience stores and fast-food restaurants teach their young and part-time employees to verbally interact with customers in strictly prescribed ways laid down in instruction manuals. These forms of speech are known as マニュアル敬語 (''manyuaru keigo'', "manual keigo") or バイト敬語 (''baito keigo'', "part-timer keigo"). Manual keigo includes forms which would be considered incorrect or at least non-standard in terms of traditional usage (keigo and otherwise). A common example is ''udon ni narimasu'' (literally " hisbecomes udon", " hiswill be udon") as a polite form of ''udon desu'' (" hisis udon"), instead of the standard ''udon de gozaimasu'' (" hisis udon (polite)")—this manual keigo form is often criticized on the basis that the udon is not "becoming" anything, and therefore ''ni naru'' is incorrect, both as keigo and more generally.Theories
Universal Politeness Theory
One theory to explain the usage of honorific language in Japan as it exists nowadays is the Universal Politeness Theory proposed by Brown and Levinson that argues that every member of society has a ''face''. This face is defined as the public image and to protect that face they use a politeness strategy in order to reduce the chance of "losing face". More specifically, there are two type of faces, a positive and a negative one. The negative face is connected to an individual's territory and resources. On the other hand, the positive face is constituted by the desire to be valued within society by its members. The use of honorifics is a negative politeness strategy to protect one's face and is calculated with the factors of the social distance between the hearer and the speaker, measure of power that the hearer has over the speaker and the ranking of impositions within a specific culture.Fukada's and Asato's Arguments for Universal Politeness Theory
Fukada and Asato stress the significance of power and distance as two variables that should be considered when evaluating Japanese politeness as Japan is a vertical society. On the basis of this, they utilise honorifics in order to not sound presumptuous or rude which could end up embarrassing themselves, losing face as a result, or threaten the hearer's face. A person in higher position asking something of a person with lower status will use strong honorifics as well because of the high rank of imposition. This shows that not just social values determine honorifics.Fukada; Asato (2003): 1999. Another factor is also the distance between people in a conversation that can trigger polite language for example in official meetings and such. In conclusion they add that these arguments support the social norm that being reserved and not speaking too much in front of people with higher status is considered a good trait in Japan. It is not just about using honorifics but also the amount the speaker talks to a hearer with a higher position. Just the act of speaking to such a person is an intrinsic face threat to the speaker.Honorifics as Relation-Acknowledging Devices
Matsumoto criticised the Universal Politeness Theory and emphasises the sensitivity of the usage of honorifics in Japanese. She defines honorifics as ''relation-acknowledging devices'' that take the hierarchical position of the participants in a conversation more into account. She argues against honorifics as a strategy to preserve the negative face as the Japanese polite language system places emphasis on showing human relationships rather than minimising imposition (as one of the key factors in the Universal Politeness Theory). Matsumoto compared indirectness in both English and Japanese, concluding that Japanese sentences do not carry the sense of politeness that exists in English with indirectness. However, Fukada and Asato comment that Matsumoto only shows examples which only show the lack of convertibility of English expressions of request into Japanese and do not universally prove that Japanese indirect utterances are not considered polite and do not count as a negative politeness strategy to save face.Volitional Type and Discernment Type of Politeness
Ide argues that there are two types of linguistic politeness in Japanese. One is the ''volitional type'' which is controlled by the speaker's intention how polite they want to be in a conversation. The other one is the ''discernment type'' that is controlled by one's assessment of the appropriate level of politeness within certain social norms. The usage of discernment encode the speaker's perception of communication in a situation. Factors like status difference of the speaker and hearer, speaker's role in the conversation and so on. She criticises that verbal and linguistic forms are treated the same way in the Universal Politeness Theory and that linguistic forms are determined and employed by social norms and not the desire of a speaker to save face. Another reason why these two forms should be differentiated is that verbal strategies are only oriented for the hearer while linguistic forms are used for both the speaker and the hearer. In this theory Fukada and Asato add that while Ide says verbal strategies are used for face-saving purposes of the speaker, it can also save the face of speaker and hearer.Fukada; Asato (2003): 1996.Anti-honorifics
Around 1900, Japanese grammarians characterized honorifics as being part of a wider system 待遇表現 ''taigū hyougen'', "expressions indicating the way you treat people," which included not only polite or respectful language but also disparaging or pejorative terms and verb suffixes. In 1974, Neustupny pointed out that the rougher terms could also be used to convey familiarity or friendship. Toshiki Tsujimura dubbed the pejorative or familiar strata 非敬語 ''hikeigo'' "anti-honorifics,". Some Japanese grammarians divide the whole sphere into "plus" (honorific/polite/humble) and "minus" (familiar or pejorative) groupings. The anti-honorific/minus level can involve using different more slangy words, for example, やる ''yaru'' meaning "do" or "give" in place of the plain level する ''suru'' for "do," or あげる ''ageru'' for "give." The casual verb ''yaru'' might be used when giving something to a small child or a dog for instance. 食う ''kuu'' is a casual word for 食べる ''taberu'' "eat. Some of these words have a pejorative bite to them, eg. やらかす ''yarakasu'' for "do," or こく ''koku'' for "say." -やがる ''yagaru'' is a verb suffix that can turn any verb into a pejorative, eg. しやがる ''shiyagaru'' "(this guy) up and does (something)" or 来やがる ''kiyagaru'' "(this dweeb) pops up out of nowhere."Peter Constantine. (1992) ''Japanese Street Slang.'' Tengu Books. p xviii Pronouns also have casual and pejorative levels, eg. the word 君 ''kimi'' is the plain form for "you." お前 ''omae'' is more casual, while 手前 ''temae'' or 貴様 ''kisama'' are pejorative. Instead of the plain 彼 ''kare'' "he" or この人 ''kono hito'' "this person", one can say more roughly こいつ ''koitsu'' "this guy (right here)," そいつ ''soitsu'' "that guy (over by you)" or あいつ ''aitsu'' "that guy (far away)."See also
* Aizuchi (相槌 ''aizuchi'') * Japanese grammar *Notes
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Honorific Speech In Japanese * Japanese grammar