History Of Colchester

Colchester is a historic former town ow citylocated in Essex, England. It served as the first capital of the United Kingdom and is the oldest recorded town in Britain. It was raided by the Vikings during the 9th and 10th centuries. It also served as an essential location for the medieval cloth trade.

Prehistory

The gravel hill upon which Colchester is built was formed in the Middle Pleistocene period, and was shaped into a terrace between the Anglian glaciation and the Ipswichian glaciation by an ancient precursor to the River Colne. From these deposits beneath the town have been found Palaeolithic flint tools, including at least six Acheulian handaxes. Further flint tools made by hunter gatherers living in the Colne Valley during the Mesolithic have been discovered, including a Tranchet axe from Middlewick. In the 1980s an archaeological inventory showed that over 800 sherds of pottery from the Neolithic, Bronze Age and early Iron Age have been found within Colchester, along with many examples of worked flint. This included a pit found at Culver Street containing a ritually placed Neolithic grooved ware pot, and other find spots containing fragments of later Deverel-Rimbury bucket urns. Further Neolithic finds were uncovered in 2010 during archaeological excavations of the former Goojerat Barracks.The Colchester Archaeologist. Issue no. 24. (2011). (ISSN 0952-0988) Colchester is surrounded by Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments that pre-date the town, including a Neolithic henge at Tendring, large Bronze Age barrow cemeteries at Dedham and Langham, and a larger example at Brightlingsea consisting of a cluster of 22 barrows. Five Bronze Age barrow mounds remain near the University of Essex on the north-east outskirts of the town, although the building of the railway line between Colchester and Clacton-on-Sea in the 1850s may have destroyed more.

Iron Age fortress and Roman ''Colonia''

Iron Age ''Camulodunon''

The Celtic fortress of "Camulodunon", meaning ''Stronghold of Camulos'' is first mentioned on coins minted by Tasciovanus in the period 20-10BC.Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester – Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () Camulodunon consisted of a series of earthwork defences, built from the 1st century BC onwards with most dating from the 1st century AD. They are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain The defences are made up of lines of ditches and ramparts, possibly palisaded with gateways, that mostly run parallel to each other in a north–south direction. The Iron Age settlement was protected by rivers on three sides, with the River Colne bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River valley forming the southern boundary; the earthworks were mostly designed to close off the western gap between these two river valleys.Denney, Patrick (2004) Colchester. Published by Tempus Publishing () Other earthworks closed off eastern parts of the settlement. The main sites within the bounds of these defences are the Gosbecks farmstead, a large high-status settlement with associated religious site, the Sheepen river port and industrial area near the present location of St Helena School and the Lexden burial mounds, a group of barrows and cremation burials. Originally Camulodunon was a stronghold of the Trinovantes tribe, led by kings such as Addedomarus, but at some point in the 1st century AD the aristocracy and ruling families were from the Catuvellauni tribe.

Strabo reports Rome's lucrative trade with Britain; the island's exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs. Iron ingots, slave chains and storage vessels discovered at the Sheepen site at Camulodunon appear to confirm this trade with the empire. The Catuvellauni king Cunobelinus, ruling from his capital at Camulodunon, had subjugated a large area of southern and eastern Britain,Todd, Malcolm. (1981) Roman Britain; 55BC – 400AD. Published by Fontana Paperbacks ()Wilson, Roger J.A. (2002) A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain (Fourth Edition). Published by Constable. () and was called by the Roman historian Suetonius "''King of the Britons''". Under his rule Camulodunon had replaced Verlamion as the most important settlement in pre-Roman Britain. Around 40AD he had fallen out with his son Adminius (acting as proxy ruler of the Cantiaci tribe in his father's name), who had fled to Rome for support. There he was received by the Emperor Gaius, who may have attempted an invasion of Britain to put Adminius on his father's throne. After Cunobelinus’ death (circa 40AD) his sons took power, with Togodumnus the eldest ruling the Catuvellauni homeland around Verlamion, and Caratacus ruling from Camulodunon. Together these brothers began expanding their influence over other British tribes, including the Atrebates of the south coast. Verica, king of the Atrebates, which had branches on both sides of the English Channel and had been friends of Rome since Caesar's conquest, appealed to the Emperor Claudius for aid. At the time of this appeal in 43 AD, the newly enthroned Emperor Claudius was in need of a military victory in order to secure his shaky position with the military, and saw this call for help as the perfect pretext. Aulus Plautius led the four Roman legions across to Britain with Camulodunon being their main target, defeating and killing Togodumnus near the Thames and then waiting for Claudius to cross the Channel. Claudius arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, leading the attack on Camulodunon. Caratacus fled the storming of the town, taking refuge with the Ordovices and Silures tribes in Wales and becoming a Welsh folk hero for his resistance to Rome. The Roman historian Suetonius and Claudius' triumphal arch state that after this battle the British kings who had been under Cunobelinus’ sons’ control surrendered without further bloodshed, Claudius accepting their submission in Camulodunon.

Roman ''Camulodunum''

A Roman legionary fortress or ''castrum'', the first permanent legionary fortress to be built in Britain, was established within the confines of Camulodunon (which was Latinised as ''Camulodunum'') following the successful invasion in 43AD, and was home to the Twentieth Legion. After the legion was withdrawn in c. 49 AD, the legionary defences were dismantled and the fortress converted into a town, with many of the barrack blocks converted into housing. Its official name became '' Colonia Victricensis'', and discharged Roman soldiers making up the population. Tacitus wrote that the town was "''a strong'' colonia ''of ex-soldiers established on conquered territory, to provide a protection against rebels and a centre for instructing the provincials in the procedures of the law''". A Roman monumental temple, the largest classical style temple in Britain, was built there in the 50sAD and was dedicated to Emperor Claudius on his death in 54AD. "Iron-Age and Roman Colchester", ''A History of the County of Essex: Volume 9: The Borough of Colchester (1994): 2–18'', Janet Cooper, C R Elrington (Editors), A P Baggs, Beryl Board, Philip Crummy, Claude Dove, Shirley Durgan, N R Goose, R B Pugh, Pamela Studd, C C Thornton.. British History Online. Web. 01 June 2014
Mike Ibeji. "Roman Colchester: Britain's First City". BBC Online. Retrieved 2008-05-20. The podium of the temple has been incorporated into the Norman castle, and represents "the earliest substantial stone building of Roman date visible in the country". A monumental arch was built from tufa and Purbeck Marble at the western gate out of the town.Crummy, Philip (1984) Colchester Archaeological Report 3: Excavations at Lion Walk, Balkerne Lane, and Middleborough, Colchester, Essex. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () Tombs lined the roads out of the town, with several belonging to military veterans, with the most famous being those of ''Longinus Sdapeze'' and ''Marcus Favonius Facilis''.Toynbee, J.M.C. (1996) Death and Burial in the Roman World. Published by Thames and Hudson. ()

The city was the capital of the Roman province of Britannia, and its temple (the largest classical-style temple in Britain) was the centre of the Imperial Cult. But tensions arose between the Roman colonists and the native British population in 60/61AD, when the Roman authorities used the death of Iceni king Prasutagus as a pretext for seizing the Iceni client state from his widow Boudica. The Iceni rebels were joined by the Trinovantes around Colonia Victricensis, who held several grudges against the Roman population of the town. These included the seizure of land for the colonia's veteran population, the use of labour to build the Temple of Claudius, and the sudden recall of loans given to the local elites by leading Romans (including Seneca and the Emperor), which had been needed to allow the locals to qualify for a position on the city council.Tacitus (1876), XIV:31. The Procurator Catus Decianus was especially despised. As the symbol of Roman rule in Britain the city was the first target of the rebels, with its Temple seen in British eyes as the "''arx aeternae dominationis''" ("stronghold of everlasting domination") according to Tacitus. He wrote that it was undefended by fortifications when it was attacked The rebels destroyed the city and slaughtered its population. Archaeologists have found layers of ash in the site of the city, suggesting that Boudica ordered her rebel army to burn the city to the ground. After the defeat of the uprising, the Procurator of the Roman province moved to the newly established commercial settlement of Londinium (London).

Following the destruction of the Colonia and Suetonius Paulinus’ crushing of the revolt the town was rebuilt on a larger scale and flourished, growing larger in size than its pre-Boudican levels (to 108 acres/45 ha) despite its loss of status to Londinium, reaching its peak in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. The town's official name was ''Colonia Claudia Victricensis'' (City of Claudius’ Victory), but it was known colloquially by contemporaries as ''Camulodunum'' or simply ''Colonia''.

The colonia became a large industrial centre, and was the largest, and for a short time the only, place in the province of Britannia where samian ware was produced, along with glasswork and metalwork, and a coin mint. Roman brick making and wine growing also took place in the area. Colonia Victricensis contained many large townhouses, with dozens of mosaics and tessellated pavements found, along with hypocausts and sophisticated waterpipes and drains. The town was home to a large classical Temple, two theatres (including Britain's largest), several Romano-British temples, Britain's only known chariot circus, Britain's first town walls, several large cemeteries and over 50 known mosaics. It may have reached a population of 30,000 at its height (in the third and early fourth century).

However, the late 3rd and 4th centuries saw a series of crises in the empire, including the breakaway Gallic Empire (of which Britain was a part), and raids by Saxon pirates, both of which lead to the creation of the Saxon Shore forts along the east coast of Britain. The fort at Othona overlooking the confluence of the Blackwater and Colne estuaries, and two more at the mouth of the river into the colonia were built to protect the town.Strachan, David (1998) Essex from the Air, Archaeology and history from aerial photographs. Published by Essex County Council () Balkerne Gate (Britain's oldest remaining Roman gateway) and Duncan's Gate were both blocked up in this period, with the later showing signs of being attacked. The extramural suburbs outside of Balkerne Gate had gone by 300 and were replaced by cultivation beds.Crummy, Philip (1987) The Coins as Dating Evidence. In Crummy, N. (ed.) Colchester Archaeological Report 4: The Coins from Excavations in Colchester 1971-9. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust The re-cutting of the town ditch in front of the newly blocked Balkerne Gate in 275–300 involved destroying the water pipes which entered the colonia through the gate.

As with many towns in the empire, the colonia shrunk in size in the 4th century but continued to function as an important town.Faulkner, Neil. (1994) Late Roman Colchester, In Oxford Journal of Archaeology 13(1) Although houses tended to shrink in size, with 75% of the large townhouses being replaced by smaller buildings by c. 350, in the period 275 to 325 a weak "building boom" (the " Constantinian renaissance") occurred in the town, with new houses being built and old ones reshaped. Many of the towns mosaics date from this period, including the famous Lion Walk mosaic. Late Roman robber trenches have been found at some sites for removing and salvaging tessellated floors and tiles for reuse in later houses.Philip (1992) Colchester Archaeological Report 6: Excavations at Culver Street, the Gilberd School, and other sites in Colchester 1971–85. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () The pottery industry in the town had declined significantly by 300, but the 4th century did see an increase in the bone-working industry for making furniture and jewellery, and evidence of blown glass making has also been found. Large areas of the Southern part of the town were given over to agriculture. Despite the scaling down of private buildings an increase in the size and grandeur of public buildings occurs in the period 275–400. The Temple of Claudius and its associated ''temenos'' buildings were reconstructed in the early-4th century, along with the possible forum-basilica building to the south of it.Drury, P.J, (1984) The Temple of Claudius Reconsidered. Britannia XV, 7–50 The Temple appears to have had a large apsidal hall built across the front of the podium steps, with numismatic dating evidence taking the date of the building up to at least 395. A large hall at the Culver Street site, dated 275–325 to 400+, may have been a large centralised storage barn for taxes paid in kind with grain. During this period the late Roman church at Butt Road just outside the town walls was built with its associated cemetery containing over 650 graves (some containing fragments of Chinese silk), and may be one of the earliest churches in Britain.Crummy, Nina; Crummy, Philip; and Crossan, Carl (1993) Colchester Archaeological Report 9: Excavations of Roman and later cemeteries, churches and monastic sites in Colchester, 1971–88. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () A strong numismatic chronology has been obtained from the over 500 coins found at the site, and puts its date from 320 to c. 425.

Sub-Roman Town

The formal collapse of Roman administration in the province occurred in the years 409–411. Activity in the 5th century continued in Camulodunum at a much reduced level, with evidence of at the Butt Road site showing that it briefly carrying on into the early 5th century.

Several burials within the town's walls have been dated to the 5th century. These include two burials discovered at East Hill House in 1983, which have been surgically decapitated (in a fashion found in both Pre-Roman and some early pagan-Saxon burial practices), and other burials cut into the 4th century barn at Culver Street. A skeleton of a young woman found stretched out on a Roman mosaic floor at Beryfield, within the SE corner of the walled town, was initially interpreted as a victim of a Saxon attack on the Sub-Roman town; however, it is now believed that the burial is a post-Roman grave cut down to the hard floor surface (the name ''Beryfield'' means ''Burial field'', a reference to the medieval graveyards in the area). As well as burials, coin hoards from the late Fourth and early Fifth centuries have been found, including a hoard minted in the reign of Constantine III (reigned 407–411) from Artillery Folly, that are heavily clipped; this clipping must have occurred in the years after they were minted and so would have happened in the 5th century. Post-Roman/early Saxon burials from the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, some buried with weapons, have been found outside of the walls in the areas of former Roman cemeteries, suggesting a continuity of practice. Scattered structures have also been excavated by archaeologists, such as a mid-5th-century dwelling at Lion Walk, as well as 5th-century loam weights and cruciform-brooches found across the town. At the Culver Street site a thin layer of early Saxon pottery was discovered along with two dwellings. Other circumstantial evidence of activity includes large post-Roman rubbish dumps, which suggest nearby occupation by Romano-Britons. The existence of a post-Roman entity centred on the town, sometimes linked to the legend of Camelot, has been argued and was first proposed by archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler.

Saxon and Viking era

Fifth to eighth centuries

Archaeological evidence shows that the post-Roman, but pre-Saxon, settlement of the early 5th century gave way from about 440–450 to a culture that was overwhelmingly Saxon in its character.Crummy, Philip (1981) Report 1: Aspects of Anglo-Saxon and Norman Colchester. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () This appears to have taken the form of a small community centred largely around Head Street and the High Street, both of which roughly follow the course of the two former main Roman streets in the town. During this period London was the capital of the Kingdom of Essex (founded c.527), although Colchester may have been an important local centre for the north of Essex. Evidence for Saxons from the fifth to eighth centuries consists of a 5th-century hut at Lion Walk, two huts from Culver Street dating to the 7th century, burials (including warrior graves) found around and within the town which date from 400 to 700, including those on Magdalen Street and the seventh and eighth century burials to the north-east of Castle Park, brooches and loomweights from the fifth to seventh centuries, coins from the seventh and eighth centuries, and scatters of pottery and other artefacts from various sites. There is a possibility that due to financial and time constraints on archaeological investigations from the 1960s–1980s that some Anglo-Saxon evidence may have been lost, with Saxon finds from the demolition of the Medieval Cups Hotel on the High Street suggesting that some structures or features were missed. The early Saxon river port was located to the south-east of the town, at Old Heath (''Ealdehethe'') and Blackheath (''Heath'', and the later name of Colchester's port '' Hythe'', derive from Old English ''hetha'', meaning a landing place) The Bishop of London's soke in the medieval town may have derived from an earlier Saxon privilege dating from the Kingdom of Essex. The Kingdom of the East Saxons has a very low presence in written historical accounts from the Saxon period, and Colchester does not appear explicitly in written accounts until 917. The ''History of the Britons'' traditionally ascribed to Nennius lists a Cair Colun among the 28 cities of Britain, which has been thought to indicate Colchester.Ford, David Nash.
The 28 Cities of Britain
" at Britannia. 2000.Newman, John Henry & al
p. 92.">''Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre'', Ch. X: "Britain in 429, A. D.", p. 92.
James Toovey (London), 1844. Geoffrey of Monmouth similarly referenced it as Kaelcolim, while his contemporary Geoffrey Gaimar called it Kair Koel. The Saxon version of the current name of the town is first recorded as "Colenceaster" and "Colneceastre" during the 10th century.

Ninth to eleventh centuries

The isolated raids by Vikings in the first half of the 9th century took a far more serious turn in 865 when a great army of Danes under the command of Ivar the Boneless invaded the Kingdom of East Anglia. In 869 King Edmund of East Anglia was defeated and killed by the Danes and the east of England fell under Danish control. Under a peace treaty between Wessex and the Danes in 879, Colchester was incorporated in the Danelaw. Norfolk and Suffolk were heavily settled by the Danes as can be traced by the density of Scandinavian place names. North-East Essex was also colonised by the Danes, and Scandinavian place names such as Kirby and Thorpe are found around Colchester. Scandinavian names are found later amongst the town's residents, and Scandinavian style weapons have been dredged from the Colne, although these might be Late Saxon or Norman. 9th century graves of the town's inhabitants have been discovered in the vicinity of St Marys at the Walls in the south-west corner of the town.

The Kings of Wessex waged continual war on the Danes and finally Colchester was recaptured by English armies under Edward the Elder in 917. The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' states that after liberating Maldon, Edward's army:

"''Went to Colchester, and beset the town, and fought thereon till they took it, and slew all the people, and seized all that was therein; except those men who escaped therefrom over the wall''."The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Part 3: A.D. 920 – 1014
Medieval and Classical Literature Library Release #17

Following successful battles against the Viking armies, Edward returned to Colchester:

"''After this, the same year, before Martinmas, went King Edward with the West-Saxon army to Colchester; and repaired and renewed the town, where it was broken down before''."

After being restored to English rule by Edward the Elder the settlement at Colchester flourished into a prosperous small ''burh'' with a developed system of rights and privileges for its burgesses. However, its location (which was the result of its Iron Age and Roman origins) several miles up-river placed it in a poor position to exploit naval trade lanes, and the town was overshadowed in this respect by Maldon and the newer town of Ipswich in Suffolk. A new port at the present Hythe improved the situation somewhat, and the town shows an increase in foreign trade during the 10th century and a mint from 991. Witans were held in the town by Edward's successors, Æthelstan in 931 and Edmund I in 940. Æthelstan described Colchester as a Town well known to all men, and his Witan included 13 ealdormen