Hindu architecture

Hindu architecture is the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as temples, monasteries, statues, homes, market places, gardens and town planning as described in Hindu texts. The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These texts include the Vastu shastras, Shilpa Shastras, the ''Brihat Samhita'', architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the Manasara among others.

By far the most important, characteristic and numerous surviving examples of Hindu architecture are Hindu temples, with an architectural tradition that has left surviving examples in stone, brick, and rock-cut architecture dating back to the Gupta Empire. These architectures had influence of Ancient Persian and Hellenistic architecture. Far fewer secular Hindu architecture have survived into the modern era, such as palaces, homes and cities. Ruins and archaeological studies provide a view of early secular architecture in India.

Studies on Indian palaces and civic architectural history have largely focussed on the Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture particularly of the northern and western India given their relative abundance. In other regions of India, particularly the South, Hindu architecture continued to thrive through the 16th-century, such as those exemplified by the temples, ruined cities and secular spaces of the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayakas. The secular architecture was never opposed to the religious in India, and it is the sacred architecture such as those found in the Hindu temples which were inspired by and adaptations of the secular ones. Further, states Harle, it is in the reliefs on temple walls, pillars, toranas and madapams where miniature version of the secular architecture can be found.

Texts

Vaastu Shastras and Shilpa Shastras are listed as one of 64 divine arts in ancient Indian texts. They are design manuals covering the art and science of architecture, typically mixing form, function with Hindu symbolism. The earliest, archaic and distilled version of Hindu architecture principles are found in the Vedic literature, traditionally considered as the ''Upavedas'' (lesser appendices to the Vedas), and called the ''Sthapatya Veda''. Acharya's ''Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture'' lists hundreds of Sanskrit manuscripts with more details on Hindu architecture that have survived into the modern age. They cover the architectural aspects of a wide range of subjects: ornaments, furniture, vehicles (wagons, carts), gateways, water tanks, drains, cities, streets, homes, palaces, temples and others. The most studied texts in the contemporary era are Sanskrit manuscripts in different Indic scripts. These include the '' Brihat Samhita'' (chapters 53, 56–58 and 79), the '' Manasara Shilpa Sastra'', the ''Mayamata Vastu Sastra'' with commentaries in Telugu and Tamil, the Puranas (for example, chapters 42–62 and 104–106 of ''Agni Purana'', chapter 7 of ''Brahmanda Purana'') and the Hindu Agamas.

Villages, towns and cities

Hindu texts recommend architectural guidelines for homes, market places, gardens and town planning. The best site for human settlement, declares '' Manasara'', seeks the right terrain with thick soil that slopes to open skies eastward so that the residents can appreciate the sunrise. It is near a river or significant water stream, and has enough ground water for wells – a second source of water. The soil, states ''Manasara'', should be firm, rich for growing flowers, vegetables and fruit trees, and of agreeable odor. The text recommends that the town planners dig and check the soil quality for a stable foundation to homes and public buildings. Once the location is accepted, the text describes forty plans for laying out the streets, the homes, markets, gardens and other infrastructure necessary for the settlement. Example architectural plans include Dandaka, Prastara, Chaturmukha, Padmaka, Karmuka, Swastika and others. The Hindu texts vary, with five shared principles:
*''Diknirnaya'': principles of orientation
*''Padavinyasa'' : site planning
*''Hastalakshana'' : proportionate measurement ratios of sections
*''Ayadi'' : six canonical principles of architecture
*''Patakadi'' : aesthetics or character of each building or part of the overall plan

The guidelines combine principles of early Hindu understanding of science, spiritual beliefs, astrology and astronomy. In practice, these guidelines favor symmetry set to the cardinal directions, with many plans favoring the streets to be aligned with seasonal winds direction, integrated with the terrain and the needs of the local weather. A temple or public assembly hall at the center of the town is recommended in ''Manasara''.

Hospitals, hospices

The early Hindu texts on medicine and surgery mention dedicated buildings and halls to take care of sick people, and recommend that architects with ''Vastu Vidya'' (वास्तुविद्या) expertise should construct these. The ''Charaka Samhita'' dated between 100 BCE to 150 CE, for example, in book 1, verse 15.6 (''sutrasthana'') states:Dominik Wujastyk (2003), The Roots of Āyurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings, 3rd edition, Penguin, pages 35–36, 10–12AV Kaviratna (1913), Charaka-samhita : translated into English, Part 1, , pages 168–169Priya V Sharma (1981), Charaka Samhita Volume 1: Sanskrit Text, with an English Translation, Chaukhamba Orientalia, , page 104

Arts and civic buildings

The ''Narada Shilpasastra'' is another early Sanskrit treatise on architecture. It has 83 chapters, with chapters on plans for villages and cities, on architectural guidelines for palaces and houses, on public water tanks, on Hindu temples, as well as construction of public civic buildings.V. Raghavan (1935), ''Two chapters on painting in the Narada Silpa Sastra'', Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Editors: Stella Kramrisch, Volume III, Number 1, pp. 15–32 Chapters 60 through 66 of ''Narada Silpa'' discuss special Śālā for community services and enjoyment, with chapter 61 on ''Bhojan-sala'' (feeding house), chapter 65 on ''Nataka'' (performance arts), and chapter 66 discussing a building to display arts and paintings. Chapter 71 discusses how ''chitra'' (painting) should be used to enliven homes and civic buildings.RN Iyengar, KS Kannan and SY Wakankar (2018), ''Narada Silpasastra: Sanskrit Text on Architectural Civil Engineering'', Jain University Press, , pp. 197–220, 233–238

''Chitra-sala'' and other "entertainment houses", states ''Narada Silpasastra'', should be located in the middle of a city, preferably the main street or where major roads of the city cross or near major temples or palace. This building's ''mandapam'' (hall) must be spacious and ventilated. It should have pictures that "captivate our minds" and "give joy to the eyes", laid out by rules of proportion and rules of "pose-determining lines", according to a translation by Raghavan. Chapter 66 further recommends specific designs. For example, it describes a civic building for display of art that is circular (''mardala'', drum-like), with main entrance and smaller ones enclosing a court-like space, terraces, and halls to divide the building into sections. These halls should itself display some items of pleasure such as carvings, colorful patterns on the floor, and brightly colored Devas, Gandharvas and Kinnaras.

Another group of civic buildings described in Hindu texts are the ''preksha-sala'' (building for drama/stage performance) and ''sangita-sala or natya-sala'' (dance performance).V. Raghavan (1934), ''Theatre Architecture in Ancient India'', Triveni, Volume 5, Number 4, pp. 357–363 These are categorized in three: those in temples for religious arts, in city for general entertainment, or in a palace for the king and his guests. The ''Samarangana Sutradhara'' of Bhoja, for example, dedicates its chapter 34 to these buildings and adds that the walls of the performance hall should adorned pictures of damsels dancing or playing instruments. The plan for ''Natya-mandapa'' with space for the dancers, space for the musicians that co-perform with the dancers, space where the dance-drama artists can change their dress for different acts (''Nepathya-dhama'') and for the ''prekshaka'' (audience) are discussed in chapter 39 of Kumara's ''Silpa Ratna''. The ''Narada Silpasastra'' uses the term "Nataka-salas", recommending that the performance stage should be raised on a platform so that the audience can get a better view, the audience hall should be decorated for the audience to admire before and after the performance. These arts and architectural principles may have evolved out of more ancient Indian traditions for performance arts, states Varadpande, as is implied in the Buddhist text ''Brahmajāla Sutta'' where the Buddha forbids his ''bhikshus'' (monks) from watching dances, music performances and similar public shows in ''Majjhima-sila''.; for another translation of the Buddhist canonical text, see: The text '' Natyasastra'' recommends architectural guidelines for the ''Natya'' theatre, but without drawings and plans. The theatre mentioned in ''Natyasastra'' probably housed an audience of 200 to 500 patrons comfortably seated, states Farley Richmond – a scholar of Indian theatre.

Temples (mandirs)

Hindu temple architecture has many varieties of style whose historic role has been to provide "a focus for both the social and spiritual life" for the Hindu community it serves, states George Michell. Every Hindu temple ("mandir") is imbued with symbolism, yet the basic structure of each stays the same. Each temple has an inner sanctum or the sacred space, the ''garbha griha'' or womb-chamber, where the primary ''murti'' or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell for ''darshana'' (view, meditative focus). Above the garbhagriha is a tower-like ''shikhara'', called the ''vimana'' in south India. This sanctum is surrounded by a closed or open path for ''pradakshina'' (also called ''parikrama'', circumambulation) that is typically intricately carved with symbolic art depicting Hindu legends, themes of artha, dharma and kama as well as the statues of significant deities of three major Hindu traditions (Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti).

The sanctums of significant temples have a ''mandapa'' congregation hall, and sometimes an ''antarala'' antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa. Major temples that attract pilgrims from far typically have mandapas or other buildings that service the pilgrims. These may be connected or detached from the temple. The main temple may exist with other smaller temples or shrines in the temple compound. The streets around the temple are markets and hubs of economic activity. There are examples of special dance pavilions (''Nata Mandir''), like in the Konark Sun Temple'', viz., gatehouse towers, usually ornate, othen with colossal size, at the entrance of a Hindu temple of Southern India.

Monasteries (mathas)

Hindu monasteries such as mathas and hermitages (ashram