Himera (
Greek: ), was a large and important
ancient Greek
Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...
city situated on the north coast of
Sicily
Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
at the mouth of the river of the same name (the modern
Imera Settentrionale), between Panormus (modern
Palermo
Palermo ( ; ; , locally also or ) is a city in southern Italy, the capital (political), capital of both the autonomous area, autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo, the city's surrounding metropolitan province. The ...
) and Cephaloedium (modern
Cefalù) in the ''
comune
A (; : , ) is an administrative division of Italy, roughly equivalent to a township or municipality. It is the third-level administrative division of Italy, after regions () and provinces (). The can also have the City status in Italy, titl ...
'' of
Termini Imerese.
Many of its remains can be visited and there are two museums on the site.
History
Foundation and earliest history
250px, Ideal reconstruction of the Temple of Victory.
Himera was the first Greek settlement on this part of the island and was a strategic outpost just outside the eastern boundary of the
Carthaginian-controlled west.
Thucydides
Thucydides ( ; ; BC) was an Classical Athens, Athenian historian and general. His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts Peloponnesian War, the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens until the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been d ...
says it was the only Greek city on this coast of Sicily, which must however be understood with reference only to independent cities.
Mylae, which was also on the north coast and certainly of Greek origin, was a dependency of
Zancle (modern
Messina
Messina ( , ; ; ; ) is a harbour city and the capital city, capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina. It is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, and the 13th largest city in Italy, with a population of 216,918 inhabitants ...
). All authorities agree that Himera was a colony of Zancle, but Thucydides tells us that the emigrants from Zancle mingled with a number of
Syracusan exiles, resulting in a city with Chalcidian institutions and a
Doric dialect.
The foundation of Himera is placed subsequent to that of Mylae (as, from their relative positions, might naturally have been expected) both by
Strabo
Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-si ...
and
Scymnus Chius: its date is not mentioned by Thucydides, but
Diodorus tells us that it had existed 240 years at the time of its destruction by the Carthaginians, which would fix its first settlement in 648 BC.
Archaeology shows that around 580-560 BC the city was completely rebuilt after an unknown event destroyed it. There is otherwise very little information as to its early history: an obscure notice in
Aristotle
Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...
, from which it appears to have at one time fallen under the dominion of the tyrant
Phalaris, being the only mention found of it, until about 490 BC, when it afforded a temporary refuge to
Scythes, tyrant of Zancle, after his expulsion from the latter city. Not long after this event, Himera fell itself under the yoke of a despot named
Terillus, who sought to fortify his power by contracting a close alliance with
Anaxilas, at that time ruler both of Rhegium (modern
Reggio di Calabria) and Zancle. But Terillus was unable to resist the power of
Theron, despot of Agrigentum (modern
Agrigento), and, being expelled by him from Himera, had recourse to the assistance of the Carthaginians, a circumstance which became the immediate occasion of the first great expedition of that people to Sicily, 480 BC.
First interaction with Carthage
The magnitude of the armament sent under
Hamilcar, who is said to have landed in Sicily with an army of 300,000 men, sufficiently proves that the conquest of Himera was the pretext, rather than the object, of the war. However, it is likely that the growing power of Himeria in the immediate vicinity of the Carthaginian settlements of Panormus and
Solus had already caused concern among the Carthaginians. Hence it was against Himera that the first efforts of Hamilcar were directed. Theron, who had thrown himself into the city with all the forces at his command, was able to maintain its defence until the arrival of
Gelon of Syracuse. Despite the numerical inferiority of his forces, he defeated the army of the Carthaginians with such slaughter that the
Battle of Himera in 480 BC was regarded by the Greeks of Sicily as worthy of comparison with the contemporary victory of
Salamis. The same feeling probably gave rise to the tradition or belief, that both triumphs were achieved on the very same day.
After the Battle of Himera
This victory left Theron in the undisputed possession of the sovereignty of Himera, as well as of that of Agrigentum. He appears to have focused on Agrigentum, and left the government of Himera to his son
Thrasydaeus. But the young man, by his violent and oppressive rule, soon alienated the minds of the citizens. They applied for relief to
Hieron of Syracuse, at that time on terms of hostility with Theron. The Syracusan despot, however, betrayed their overtures to Theron. He took vengeance on the Himeraeans, putting to death a large number of the disaffected citizens and driving others into exile. Shortly after, seeing that the city had suffered greatly from these severities and that its population was much diminished, he sought to restore its prosperity by establishing there a new body of citizens whom he collected from various quarters. The greater part of these new colonists were of
Dorian extraction, and though the two bodies of citizens were blended into one and continued to live harmoniously together, at this period Himera became a Doric city. Himera adopted the institutions and followed the policy of the other Doric states of Sicily. This settlement seems to have taken place in 476 BC, and Himera continued subject to Theron until his death, in 472 BC, but Thrasydaeus retained possession of the sovereignty for a very short time after the death of his father, and his defeat by Hieron of Syracuse was speedily followed by his expulsion both from Agrigentum and Himera. In 466 BC we find the Himeraeans, in their turn, sending a force to assist the Syracusans in throwing off the yoke of
Thrasybulus; and, in the general settlement of affairs which followed soon after, the exiles were allowed to return to Himera, where they appear to have settled quietly together with the new citizens. From this period Diodorus expressly tells us that Himera was fortunate enough to escape from civil dissensions,
[xi. 49.] and this good government must have secured to it no small share of the prosperity which was enjoyed by the Sicilian cities in general during the succeeding half-century.
But though we are told in general terms that the period which elapsed from this re-settlement of Himera until its destruction by the Carthaginians (461–408 BC), was one of peace and prosperity, the only notices we find of the city during this interval refer to the part it took at the time of the
Athenian
Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
expedition to Sicily, 415 BC. On that occasion, the Himeraeans were among the first to promise their support to Syracuse: hence, when
Nicias presented himself before their port with the Athenian fleet, they altogether refused to receive him; and, shortly after, it was at Himera that
Gylippus
Gylippus (; was a Spartan general (strategos) of the 5th century BC; he was the son of Cleandridas, who was the adviser of King Pleistoanax and had been expelled from Sparta for accepting Athenian bribes in 446 BC and fled to Thurii, a pan-H ...
landed, and from whence he marched across the island to Syracuse, at the head of a force composed in great part of Himeraean citizens.
Destruction by Carthage

In 409 BC the prosperity of the city was brought to an abrupt end by the
great Carthaginian expedition to Sicily. The ostensible object of the expedition was the support of the
Segestans against their neighbours, the
Selinuntines. The Carthaginians, though, had greater ambitions. Immediately after the destruction of Selinus,
Hannibal Mago, who commanded the expedition, hastened to turn his arms against Himera. That city was ill-prepared for defence; its fortifications were of little strength, but the citizens made a desperate resistance, and by a vigorous sally inflicted severe loss on the Carthaginians. They were at first supported by a force of about 4000 auxiliaries from Syracuse under the command of
Diocles, but that general feared for the safety of Syracuse itself and abandoned Himera, leaving the unfortunate citizens to contend singlehanded against the Carthaginian power. Their defenses failed and the city was soon taken by storm. A large part of the citizens were killed and at least 3000 of them, who had been taken prisoners, were put to death by Hannibal as a sacrifice to the memory of his grandfather Hamilcar. The city itself was utterly destroyed, its buildings razed to the ground, and even the temples themselves were not spared.
Diodorus, who relates the total destruction of Himera, tells us expressly that it was never rebuilt, and that the site remained uninhabited down to his own times.
It seems at first in contradiction with this statement, that he elsewhere includes the Himeraeans, as well as the Selinuntines and Agrigentines, among the exiled citizens that were allowed by the treaty, concluded with Carthage, in 405 BC, to return to their homes, and inhabit their own cities, on condition of paying tribute to Carthage and not restoring their fortifications. And it seems clear that many of them at least availed themselves of this permission, as we find the Himeraeans subsequently mentioned among the states that declared in favour of
Dionysius I of Syracuse, at the commencement of his great war with Carthage in 397 BC; though they quickly returned to the Carthaginian alliance in the following year. The explanation of this difficulty is furnished by
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
, who tells us that, after the destruction of Himera, those citizens who had survived the calamity of the war established themselves at
Thermae
In ancient Rome, (from Greek , "hot") and (from Greek ) were facilities for bathing. usually refers to the large Roman Empire, imperial public bath, bath complexes, while were smaller-scale facilities, public or private, that existed i ...
, within the confines of the same territory, and not far from their old town. Diodorus gives a somewhat different account of the foundation of Thermae, which he represents as established by the Carthaginians themselves before the close of the war, in 407 BC. But it is probable that both statements are substantially correct, and that the Carthaginians founded the new town in the immediate neighbourhood of Himera, in order to prevent the old site being again occupied; while the Himeraean exiles, when they returned thither, though they settled in the new town, naturally regarded themselves as still the same people, and would continue to bear the name of Himeraeans. How completely, even at a much later period, the one city was regarded as the representative of the other, appears from the statement of Cicero, that when
Scipio Aemilianus, after the capture of Carthage, restored to the Agrigentines and Gelenses the statues that had been carried off from their respective cities, he at the same time restored to the citizens of Thermae those that had been taken from Himera. Hence we cannot be surprised to find that, not only are the Himeraeans still spoken of as an existing people, but even that the name of Himera itself is sometimes inadvertently used as that of their city. Thus, in 314 BC, Diodorus tells us that, by the treaty between
Agathocles and the Carthaginians, it was stipulated that
Heracleia,
Selinus and Himera should continue subject to Carthage as they had been before. It is much more strange that we find the name of Himera reappear both in
Mela and
Pliny, though we know from the distinct statements of Cicero and Strabo, as well as Diodorus, that it had ceased to exist centuries before.
Foundation of Thermae
The new town of Thermae or Therma called for the sake of distinction Thermae Himerenses, which thus took the place of Himera, obviously derived its name from the hot springs for which it was celebrated, and the first discovery of which was connected by legends with the wanderings of
Hercules
Hercules (, ) is the Roman equivalent of the Greek divine hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmena. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.
The Romans adapted the Gr ...
. It appears to have early become a considerable town, though it continued, with few and brief exceptions, to be subject to the Carthaginian rule. In the
First Punic War
The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC. For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and grea ...
its name is repeatedly mentioned. Thus, in 260 BC, a body of
Roman troops were encamped in the neighborhood, when they were attacked by
Hamilcar, and defeated with heavy loss. Before the close of the war, Thermae itself was besieged and taken by the Romans. Cicero relates that the Roman government restored to the Thermitani their city and territory, with the free use of their own laws, as a reward for their steady fidelity. They were on hostile terms with Rome during the First Punic War, so it can only be to the subsequent period that these expressions apply; but the occasion to which they refer is unknown. In the time of Cicero, Thermae appears to have been a flourishing place, carrying on a considerable amount of trade, though the orator speaks, of it as ''oppidum non maximum''. It seems to have received a
colony
A colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule, which rules the territory and its indigenous peoples separated from the foreign rulers, the colonizer, and their ''metropole'' (or "mother country"). This separated rule was often orga ...
in the time of
Augustus
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
, whence we find mention in inscriptions of the ''Ordo et Populus splendidissimae Coloniae Augustae Himeraeorum Thermitanorum'': and there can be little doubt that the Thermae colonia of
Pliny in reality refers to this town, though he evidently understood it to be Thermae Selinuntiae (modern
Sciacca), as he places it on the south coast between Agrigentum and Selinus. There is little subsequent account of Thermae; but, as its name is found in
Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy (; , ; ; – 160s/170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine science, Byzant ...
and the Itineraries, it appears to have continued in existence throughout the period of the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...
, and probably never ceased to be inhabited, as the modern town of
Termini Imerese retains the ancient site as well as name. The magnificence of the ancient city, and the taste of its citizens for the encouragement of art, are attested by Cicero, who calls it ''in primis Siciliae clarum et ornatum''; and some evidence of it remained, even in the days of that orator, in the statues preserved by the Thermitani, to whom they had been restored by Scipio, after the conquest of Carthage; and which were valuable, not only as relics of the past, but from their high merit as works of art.
[Cicero ''In Verrem'' ii. 3. 5.] The numerous examples of coins from Himera testify to the city's wealth in antiquity.
Site
The exact position of Himera was a subject of controversy until recent times.
Cluverius was followed by almost all writers in the 19th century and placed it on the west bank of the river San Leonardo which flows past the west side of Termini. On this supposition the inhabitants moved from one bank of the river to the other which would explain the texts in which Himera and Thermae appear to be regarded as identical, and where the river Himera is also said to be flowing past Thermae.
Fazello correctly identified the Himera river with the
Imera Settentrionale, the mouth of which is 8 miles from Termini. This distance was not too great to be reconciled with Cicero's expression that the new settlement (Thermae) was established ''non longe ab oppido antique'';
while the addition that it was in the same territory would seem to imply that it was not very near the old site.
Archaeology
Many parts of the ancient city have been excavated in recent years and can be visited. Of the lower city the main visible remains consist of the monumental
Tempio della Vittoria (Temple of Victory), a
Doric structure built to commemorate the defeat of the Carthaginians.
The upper city on top of the hill has remains of other temples and of many other buildings.
At various locations around the city were the town's
necropoles and many artifacts recovered are displayed in both museums on site.
There are also impressive displays in
Palermo
Palermo ( ; ; , locally also or ) is a city in southern Italy, the capital (political), capital of both the autonomous area, autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo, the city's surrounding metropolitan province. The ...
's Museo Archeologico Regionale.
Famous people
Himera is said to be the birthplace of the poet
Stesichorus
Stesichorus (; , ''Stēsichoros''; c. 630 – 555 BC) was a Greek Greek lyric, lyric poet native of Metauros (Gioia Tauro today). He is best known for telling epic stories in lyric metres, and for some ancient traditions about his life, such as hi ...
but in fact he was born in the Magna Graecian town of Metauros (modern Gioia Tauro) in 630BC. He moved to Himera in later life and wrote his poetry whilst a resident of the town.
Ergoteles, whose victory at the
Olympic games
The modern Olympic Games (Olympics; ) are the world's preeminent international Olympic sports, sporting events. They feature summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a Multi-s ...
is celebrated by
Pindar
Pindar (; ; ; ) was an Greek lyric, Ancient Greek lyric poet from Thebes, Greece, Thebes. Of the Western canon, canonical nine lyric poets of ancient Greece, his work is the best preserved. Quintilian wrote, "Of the nine lyric poets, Pindar i ...
, was a citizen, but not a native, of Himera. On the other hand, Thermae had the honour of being the birthplace of the tyrant
Agathocles.
[Diod. xix. 2.]
See also
*
List of ancient Greek cities
This is an incomplete list of ancient Greek cities, including colonies outside Greece, and including settlements that were not sovereign '' poleis''.
Many colonies outside Greece were soon assimilated to some other language but a city is included h ...
References
Sources
*
Further reading
* Curry, Andrew. "Mercenaries may have helped ancient Greeks turn the tide of war". In: ''
Science
Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...
''. Published: October 3, 2022. Accessed: October 3, 2022. doi: 10.1126/science.adf1652
* Reinberger KL, Reitsema LJ, Kyle B, Vassallo S, Kamenov G, Krigbaum J (2021). "Isotopic evidence for geographic heterogeneity in Ancient Greek military forces". In: ''
PLoS ONE'' 16(5): e0248803. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248803
* Reitsema, Laurie J. et alli. "The diverse genetic origins of a Classical period Greek army". In: ''
PNAS
''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America'' (often abbreviated ''PNAS'' or ''PNAS USA'') is a peer-reviewed multidisciplinary scientific journal. It is the official journal of the National Academy of S ...
'' 119 (41) e2205272119, October 3, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2205272119
External links
Official website
{{Authority control
640s BC
Archaeological sites in Sicily
Zanclean colonies
Colonies of Magna Graecia
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Italy
Carthage
Former populated places in Italy
7th-century BC establishments