Hierotopy (from , sacred + , place, space) is the creation of

sacred Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects ( ...

spaces viewed as a special form of human creativity and also a related academic field where specific examples of such creativity are studied. The concept and the term were developed in 2002 by

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

n art-historian and

byzantinist Byzantine studies is an interdisciplinary branch of the humanities that addresses the history, culture, demography, dress, religion/theology, art, literature/epigraphy, music Music is the arrangement of sound to create some combination ...

Alexei Lidov Alexei Mikhailovich Lidov (Russian language, Russian: Алексей́ Михай́лович Ли́дов; March 9, 1959 – May 29, 2025) was a Russian art history, art historian and Byzantine studies, Byzantinist, an author of the concepts '' ...

. Hierotopy accounts for the ways in which a vast array of media (e.g. religious

image An image or picture is a visual representation. An image can be Two-dimensional space, two-dimensional, such as a drawing, painting, or photograph, or Three-dimensional space, three-dimensional, such as a carving or sculpture. Images may be di ...

ritual A ritual is a repeated, structured sequence of actions or behaviors that alters the internal or external state of an individual, group, or environment, regardless of conscious understanding, emotional context, or symbolic meaning. Traditionally ...

song A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usu ...

incense Incense is an aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremonial reasons. It ...

light Light, visible light, or visible radiation is electromagnetic radiation that can be visual perception, perceived by the human eye. Visible light spans the visible spectrum and is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400– ...

) are used to organize sacred spaces. As an academic field, it spans the disciplines of

art history Art history is the study of Work of art, artistic works made throughout human history. Among other topics, it studies art’s formal qualities, its impact on societies and cultures, and how artistic styles have changed throughout history. Tradit ...

archeology Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscapes. Archaeolo ...

cultural anthropology Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans. It is in contrast to social anthropology, which perceives cultural variation as a subset of a posited anthropological constant. The term ...

ethnology Ethnology (from the , meaning 'nation') is an academic field and discipline that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them (compare cultural, social, or sociocultural anthropology). Sci ...

and

religious studies Religious studies, also known as religiology or the study of religion, is the study of religion from a historical or scientific perspective. There is no consensus on what qualifies as ''religion'' and definition of religion, its definition is h ...

, but it possesses an object of study and a methodology of its own. It differs from the phenomenology of the sacred (which has been studied by

Mircea Eliade Mircea Eliade (; – April 22, 1986) was a Romanian History of religion, historian of religion, fiction writer, philosopher, and professor at the University of Chicago. One of the most influential scholars of religion of the 20th century and in ...

Rudolf Otto Rudolf Otto (25 September 1869 – 7 March 1937) was a German Lutheran theologian, philosopher, and comparative religionist. He is regarded as one of the most influential scholars of religion in the early twentieth century and is best known fo ...

and

Pavel Florensky Pavel Alexandrovich Florensky (also P. A. Florenskiĭ, Florenskii, Florenskij; ; ; – December 8, 1937) was a Russian Orthodox theologian, priest, philosopher, mathematician, physicist, electrical engineer, inventor, polymath, neomartyr and f ...

) insofar as it focuses on historical examples of hierotopic projects, that is, projects establishing a medium of communication between the

mundane In subcultural and fictional uses, a mundane is a person who does not belong to a particular group, according to the members of that group; the implication is that such persons, lacking imagination, are concerned solely with the mundane: the ...

and the

. Though related with religious

mysticism Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute (philosophy), Absolute, but may refer to any kind of Religious ecstasy, ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or Spirituality, spiritual meani ...

, hierotopy deals first and foremost with forms of conscious, creative activity. According to the hierotopic approach,

icon An icon () is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, in the cultures of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic Church, Catholic, and Lutheranism, Lutheran churches. The most common subjects include Jesus, Mary, mother of ...

s and other sacred artifacts are viewed not as isolated objects, but as components of larger hierotopic projects. Though such artifacts often play a prominent role in hierotopic studies, it is these projects themselves – including both their conceptual and artistic aspects, as well as the historical developments leading to their formation – that are the primary focus of study. The role played by the creators of sacred spaces is also of chief importance, and could be compared with that of an artist. The creative element at work here resembles the work of contemporary film directors, for both involve the coordinated effort of various artists and specialists in shaping a single, comprehensive vision. One can consider as hierotopic examples

King Solomon King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a constitutional monarch if his power is restrained by f ...

's construction of the

First Temple Solomon's Temple, also known as the First Temple (), was a biblical Temple in Jerusalem believed to have existed between the 10th and 6th centuries BCE. Its description is largely based on narratives in the Hebrew Bible, in which it was commis ...

, the erection of

Hagia Sophia Hagia Sophia (; ; ; ; ), officially the Hagia Sophia Grand Mosque (; ), is a mosque and former Church (building), church serving as a major cultural and historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. The last of three church buildings to be successively ...

Emperor Justinian Justinian I (, ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 527 to 565. His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized '' renovatio imperii'', or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition w ...

, as well as the work of

Abbot Suger Suger (; ; ; 1081 – 13 January 1151) was a French abbot and statesman. He was a key advisor to King Louis VI and his son Louis VII, acting as the latter's regent during the Second Crusade. His writings remain seminal texts for early twelf ...

in the conception of first

Gothic cathedrals Gothic cathedrals and churches are religious buildings constructed in Europe in Gothic style between the mid-12th century and the beginning of the 16th century. The cathedrals are notable particularly for their great height and their extensive u ...

. Hierotopic projects are not limited to churches and sanctuaries; in other cases, landscapes, architectural compounds and even cities and countries have become products of hierotopic creativity. The topics of hierotopic study cover a broad span of interests and range, for example, from the role played by light in church architecture to the study of religious ceremonies, feasts and folk customs. The comparison of hierotopic models at work in different cultures is another focus of interest. Six international symposia (2004, 2006, 2009, 2011, 2014, 2017) have been organized on hierotopic subjects.

Hierotopy and Pilgrimage Culture

Pilgrimage sites often represent the physical embodiment of hierotopic creativity, where ritual processions, sacred routes, and relic veneration converge to produce a sacred atmosphere. The

Camino de Santiago The Camino de Santiago (, ; ), or the Way of St. James in English, is a network of pilgrims' ways or pilgrimages leading to the shrine of the apostle James in the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in northwestern Spain, where tra ...

Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...

, the

Kumbh Mela Kumbh Mela (, ; ) is an important Hinduism, Hindu pilgrimage, celebrated approximately every 6 or 12 years, correlated with the partial or full orbital period, revolution of Jupiter. It is the largest peaceful gathering of people in the w ...

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

, and the

Hajj Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...

Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...

are monumental examples of this phenomenon. These events transform entire landscapes into sacred terrains through spatial organization, temporary structures, and collective memory.

Spatial Icons

The concept of the '' spatial icon'' plays a central role in hierotopy and is used to describe the perception of sacred spaces. Spatial icons are understood to play a mediating role between the

and the

. They are mediatory images that are evoked, for example, in the space of a

temple A temple (from the Latin ) is a place of worship, a building used for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. By convention, the specially built places of worship of some religions are commonly called "temples" in Engli ...

sanctuary A sanctuary, in its original meaning, is a sacred space, sacred place, such as a shrine, protected by ecclesiastical immunity. By the use of such places as a haven, by extension the term has come to be used for any place of safety. This seconda ...

. Hierotopic creativity is a sort of art, which can be described as the creation of spatial icons. This concept applies to the way in which the perception of architecture, light, image, ritual practice, as well as various other components forming sacred spaces, is unified into a single vision. It is also used in the study both of "sacred landscapes", such as the

New Jerusalem Monastery The Resurrection Monastery () or New Jerusalem Monastery () is a major monastery of the Russian Orthodox Church in Moscow Oblast, Russia. The Voskresensky Monastery has given rise to the eponymous village, which has grown into the town of Voskr ...

near

Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...

, as well as of various ritual practices creating iconic medium, such as the Donkey walk in

medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...

Moscow. Spatial icons are essentially dynamic and performative in nature, such that the formal boundary between 'image' and 'beholder' no longer pertains. Typically, the beholders of spatial icons are actively involved in some way and become, to a certain extent, co-creators of the icons.

Digital and Virtual Spaces

The rise of digital technology has introduced a new dimension to hierotopy: the creation of sacred experiences in virtual environments. Online prayer rooms, 3D reconstructions of temples, and immersive VR rituals allow participants to engage in transcendent experiences beyond physical boundaries. These digital spaces are being studied as “cyber-hierotopy,” a term some scholars are beginning to use to describe sacred digital creativity.

Transfer of Sacred Spaces

The transfer of sacred spaces is an important form of hierotopic creativity. While an original sacred space often appears as the result of a

theophany Theophany () is an encounter with a deity that manifests in an observable and tangible form.. It is often confused with other types of encounters with a deity, but these interactions are not considered theophanies unless the deity reveals itse ...

, such as a divine visitation or omen, this primary sacred space is then consciously reproduced in

sanctuaries A sanctuary, in its original meaning, is a sacred place, such as a shrine, protected by ecclesiastical immunity. By the use of such places as a haven, by extension the term has come to be used for any place of safety. This secondary use can be ...

s as a spatial icon. For example, the construction of the

, as recounted in the

Old Testament The Old Testament (OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew and occasionally Aramaic writings by the Isr ...

, can be viewed as the reproduction of the sacred space of the

Tabernacle According to the Hebrew Bible, the tabernacle (), also known as the Tent of the Congregation (, also Tent of Meeting), was the portable earthly dwelling of God used by the Israelites from the Exodus until the conquest of Canaan. Moses was instru ...

. Similarly, in the design and construction of many Christian churches, the First Temple itself has been taken as a hierotopic prototype. Multiple "New Jerusalems" (reproductions of the Holy City of

Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...

), aimed to establish a link to the space of the

Holy Land The term "Holy Land" is used to collectively denote areas of the Southern Levant that hold great significance in the Abrahamic religions, primarily because of their association with people and events featured in the Bible. It is traditionall ...

, are common both to the Eastern and Western branches of the

Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...

tradition.

Image-paradigms

The perception of sacred spaces has been analyzed by Lidov in terms of ''image-paradigms''. According to his conception, an image-paradigm is a guiding image-vision that is created with the help of various media and that is aimed at evoking the same image in the mind of beholders of a sacred space. An image-paradigm, which is essentially different from an illustrative picture or representation, is a means of communication between the creators of sacred spaces and their beholders. It constitutes a kernel of meaning that gives form to an entire hierotopic project. As an example, the image of the Heavenly Jerusalem, which was present in

Medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...

churches without being directly represented, is one of the most significant image-paradigms in the Christian tradition.

Soundscapes

Sacred sound—chants, bells, hymns, or silence—forms an essential medium in hierotopic creativity. The acoustics of a space can be designed to amplify a spiritual experience, as seen in

Byzantine chant Byzantine music () originally consisted of the songs and hymns composed for the courtly and religious ceremonial of the Byzantine Empire and continued, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, in the traditions of the sung Byzantine chant of East ...

or the echoing silence of

Zen temples Zen (; from Chinese: ''Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka phil ...

. Hierotopy considers how sound organizes sacred space, not merely as background, but as an active component of the spatial icon.

Political Power

Throughout history, rulers have used hierotopy to legitimize authority by building sacred spaces that merge divine sanction with political rule. The Pharaohs of Egypt, the

Holy Roman Emperors The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans (; ) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period (; ), was the ruler and head of state of the Holy Roman Empire. ...

, and Indian kings of the

Gupta Empire The Gupta Empire was an Indian empire during the classical period of the Indian subcontinent which existed from the mid 3rd century to mid 6th century CE. At its zenith, the dynasty ruled over an empire that spanned much of the northern Indian ...

utilized temples, shrines, and symbolic geography to equate their rule with divine will. These sacred-political projects show how space can mediate power.

Indigenous and Oral Traditions

Many Indigenous cultures have long practiced hierotopic creativity outside the bounds of architecture or written theology. In these traditions, storytelling, totems, seasonal rituals, and sacred natural landmarks serve as spatial icons. These forms of sacred spatial knowledge are often transmitted orally and through ritual performance, rather than visual art or text, challenging Western definitions of hierotopy.

Ritual Choreography

Hierotopy places considerable emphasis on the role of ritual movement and embodied action in the constitution of sacred space. Sacred environments are not solely defined by their material composition; they are also structured by ritualized behaviors that occur within them. The notion of “ritual choreography” refers to the organized, often repetitive movement of individuals or groups through space in accordance with liturgical, devotional, or ceremonial protocols. Examples include processions, circumambulations, prostrations, and other prescribed bodily practices that activate specific spatial zones and confer sacred significance upon them. These actions are not ancillary but are integral to the performative enactment of hierotopic space. In this respect, the human body functions as both an instrument and a medium of sacred creativity. The interplay between space, gesture, and temporality serves to continually renew and animate the sacred environment, making it responsive to communal memory, doctrinal meaning, and liturgical rhythm.

Beyond Architecture

While architecture remains an important component in the hierotopic construction of sacred space, the field extends its analysis beyond physical structures to include immaterial and ephemeral elements. These may involve auditory phenomena such as chanting or bell sounds, olfactory cues like incense, or atmospheric conditions produced by lighting and seasonal rituals. The sacred space is thus conceived not merely as a built environment, but as an orchestrated field of sensory and symbolic interaction. This broader conceptualization allows for the inclusion of non-traditional or non-permanent sacred sites, including natural landscapes, temporary installations, and digital environments. For example, sacred groves, desert shrines, or online spaces designed for prayer or meditation can all be subject to hierotopic analysis if they involve a deliberate configuration of elements intended to produce an experience of the sacred. By framing sacred space as a multi-layered and temporally dynamic construct, hierotopy offers a comprehensive methodology for understanding how religious meaning is spatially and sensorially mediated across cultures and epochs.

The Role of Sight

Light, as both a physical and symbolic element, plays a crucial role in the creation and perception of sacred space. The careful manipulation of light in religious settings is an essential aspect of hierotopic design, as it serves to transform the space into a more divine and transcendent environment. In many religious traditions, light is understood as a manifestation of the divine presence, illuminating both the physical space and the inner spirit of the worshipper. Light serves as a medium for both the representation and experience of the sacred, guiding the beholder’s attention and creating an atmosphere of awe and reverence. One of the most prominent examples of the use of light in hierotopic spaces is found in the architecture of Christian churches, particularly in the design of Gothic cathedrals. The use of stained glass windows, for example, is a deliberate attempt to filter natural light, creating a mystical effect that connects the worshipper with the divine. The interplay between light and shadow within sacred space is often symbolic, representing the presence of God as well as the tension between the human and the divine. Similarly, in the design of Buddhist temples, the manipulation of light is central to the creation of a space that encourages meditation and spiritual reflection. The soft, diffuse lighting within a Buddhist temple, combined with incense and ritual practices, creates an environment conducive to contemplation and inner transformation. In both Eastern and Western religious contexts, the use of light in sacred spaces emphasizes the idea of illumination—both literal and metaphorical—offering a visual experience of the divine.

Temporal Dimensions

Hierotopy also considers the temporal dimensions of sacred space, focusing on how the experience of time influences the sacred environment. The interplay between time and space is a critical component of hierotopic design, as sacred spaces are often experienced in a ritual or cyclical context. Religious rituals, festivals, and ceremonies follow specific temporal patterns, and the layout and design of sacred spaces must accommodate these time-based activities. For example, in the Christian tradition, the architectural layout of churches often aligns with the liturgical calendar, with certain spaces designated for specific religious observances or seasons. Similarly, in Hindu and Buddhist traditions, temples are designed to facilitate seasonal and ritual cycles, with particular areas of the temple used for specific purposes at different times of the year. The idea of sacred time, represented through the cycles of worship, prayer, and pilgrimage, underscores the temporal nature of sacred spaces and the way in which the divine is encountered over time, rather than as a static, one-time event. This temporal dimension is especially important in the context of pilgrimage, where the act of journeying through sacred landscapes or cities becomes a spiritual practice that takes place over an extended period. Pilgrims often experience a transformation of their relationship to sacred space as they move through it, with their journey unfolding in time and offering a deeper connection to the divine.

References

{{Reflist

External links

Internet-library of publications on hierotopy
Religious studies Art history Holiness Ancient Byzantium