Herculaneum
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Herculaneum is an
ancient Roman In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of Rome, founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, collapse of the Western Roman Em ...
town located in the modern-day ''
comune A (; : , ) is an administrative division of Italy, roughly equivalent to a township or municipality. It is the third-level administrative division of Italy, after regions () and provinces (). The can also have the City status in Italy, titl ...
'' of
Ercolano Ercolano () is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania of Southern Italy. It lies at the western foot of Mount Vesuvius, on the Bay of Naples, just southeast of the city of Naples. The medieval town of Resina () was bui ...
,
Campania Campania is an administrative Regions of Italy, region of Italy located in Southern Italy; most of it is in the south-western portion of the Italian Peninsula (with the Tyrrhenian Sea to its west), but it also includes the small Phlegraean Islan ...
, Italy. Herculaneum was buried under a massive
pyroclastic flow A pyroclastic flow (also known as a pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra) that flows along the ground away from a volcano at average speeds of b ...
in the
eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD In 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius, a stratovolcano located in the modern-day region of Campania, erupted, causing List of volcanic eruptions by death toll, one of the deadliest eruptions in history. Vesuvius violently ejected a Eruption column, cloud of ...
. Like the nearby city of
Pompeii Pompeii ( ; ) was a city in what is now the municipality of Pompei, near Naples, in the Campania region of Italy. Along with Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Villa Boscoreale, many surrounding villas, the city was buried under of volcanic ash and p ...
, Herculaneum is famous as one of the few ancient cities to be preserved nearly intact, as the solidified material from the volcano that blanketed the town protected it against looting and the elements. Although less known than Pompeii today, it was the first and, for a long time, the only discovered Vesuvian city (in 1709). Pompeii was revealed in 1748 and identified in 1763. Unlike Pompeii, the mainly pyroclastic material that covered Herculaneum carbonized and preserved more wooden objects such as roofs, beds, and doors, as well as other organic-based materials such as
food Food is any substance consumed by an organism for Nutrient, nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or Fungus, fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, protein (nutrient), proteins, vitamins, ...
and
papyrus Papyrus ( ) is a material similar to thick paper that was used in ancient times as a writing surface. It was made from the pith of the papyrus plant, ''Cyperus papyrus'', a wetland sedge. ''Papyrus'' (plural: ''papyri'' or ''papyruses'') can a ...
. According to the traditional tale, the city was rediscovered by chance in 1709 during the drilling of a well. Remnants of the city, however, were already found during earlier earthworks. In the years following the site's uncovering, treasure seekers excavated tunnels and took artifacts. Regular excavations commenced in 1738 and have continued irregularly since. Today, only a fraction of the ancient site has been excavated. The focus has shifted to preserving the already-excavated portions of the city rather than exposing more. Smaller than Pompeii with a population of circa 5,000, Herculaneum was a wealthier town. It was a seaside retreat for the Roman elite, as reflected by the extraordinary density of luxurious houses featuring lavish use of coloured
marble Marble is a metamorphic rock consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonly calcite (CaCO3) or Dolomite (mineral), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) that have recrystallized under the influence of heat and pressure. It has a crystalline texture, and is ty ...
cladding. Buildings of the ancient city include the
Villa of the Papyri The Villa of the Papyri (, also known as ''Villa dei Pisoni'' and in early excavation records as the ''Villa Suburbana'') was an ancient Roman Empire, Roman villa in Herculaneum, in what is now Ercolano, southern Italy. It is named after its un ...
and the so-called "boat houses", wherein the skeletal remains of at least 300 people were found.


History of Herculaneum

Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dionysius of Halicarnassus (, ; – after 7 BC) was a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, who flourished during the reign of Emperor Augustus. His literary style was ''atticistic'' – imitating Classical Attic Greek in its prime. ...
states that the Greek hero
Heracles Heracles ( ; ), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a Divinity, divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of ZeusApollodorus1.9.16/ref> and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptive descent through ...
(''
Hercules Hercules (, ) is the Roman equivalent of the Greek divine hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmena. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures. The Romans adapted the Gr ...
'' in
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
) founded the city. However, according to
Strabo Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-si ...
, the
Oscans The Osci (also called Oscans, Opici, Opsci, Obsci, Opicans) were an Italic people of Campania and Latium adiectum before and during Roman times. They spoke the Oscan language, also spoken by the Samnites of Southern Italy. Although the language ...
founded the first settlement. The
Etruscans The Etruscan civilization ( ) was an ancient civilization created by the Etruscans, a people who inhabited Etruria in List of ancient peoples of Italy, ancient Italy, with a common language and culture, and formed a federation of city-states. Af ...
took control of the area, and were later overthrown by the Greeks. The Greeks named the town ''Heraklion'' and used it as a trading post because of its proximity to the
Gulf of Naples The Gulf of Naples (), also called the Bay of Naples, is a roughly 15-kilometer-wide (9.3 mi) gulf located along the south-western coast of Italy (Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania region). It opens to the west into the Mediterranean ...
. In the 4th century BC, Herculaneum came under the domination of the
Samnites The Samnites () were an ancient Italic peoples, Italic people who lived in Samnium, which is located in modern inland Abruzzo, Molise, and Campania in south-central Italy. An Oscan language, Oscan-speaking Osci, people, who originated as an offsh ...
. In the 2nd century BC the city walls were built (between 2 and 3 metres thick), constructed primarily of large pebbles, with the exception of the coastal section made of ''
opus reticulatum ''Opus reticulatum'' (also known as reticulate work) is a facing used for concrete walls in Ancient Roman architecture, Roman architecture from about the first century BCE to the early first century CE. Facings are a type of polygonal masonry us ...
''. It participated in the
Social War (91–88 BC) Social War may refer to: * Social War (357–355 BC), or the War of the Allies, fought between the Second Athenian Empire and the allies of Chios, Rhodes, and Cos as well as Byzantium * Social War (220–217 BC), fought among the southern Greek sta ...
on the side of the "Allies" against Rome and was defeated by Titus Didius, a legate of
Sulla Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (, ; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman people, Roman general and statesman of the late Roman Republic. A great commander and ruthless politician, Sulla used violence to advance his career and his co ...
. Following the war the walls lost their protective purpose and were integrated into houses and adjacent structures, such as the ''House of the Inn''. It became a Roman ''
municipium In ancient Rome, the Latin term (: ) referred to a town or city. Etymologically, the was a social contract among ('duty holders'), or citizens of the town. The duties () were a communal obligation assumed by the in exchange for the privileges ...
'' in 89 BC. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 buried Herculaneum under approximately of ash. It lay hidden and largely intact until discoveries from wells and tunnels became gradually more widely known, notably following the Prince d'Elbeuf's explorations in the early 18th century. Excavations continued sporadically up to the present and today many streets and buildings are visible, although over 75% of the town remains buried. Today, the Italian towns of
Ercolano Ercolano () is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania of Southern Italy. It lies at the western foot of Mount Vesuvius, on the Bay of Naples, just southeast of the city of Naples. The medieval town of Resina () was bui ...
and Portici lie above Herculaneum. Ercolano was called Resina until 1969 when the modern name was adopted in honour of the old city.


Eruption of 79 AD

The course and timeline of the eruption can be reconstructed based on archaeological excavations and two letters from
Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo; 61 – ), better known in English as Pliny the Younger ( ), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and e ...
to the Roman historian
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
. At around 1 pm on the first day of eruption, Mount Vesuvius began spewing volcanic material thousands of metres into the sky. After the plume had reached a height of , the top of the column flattened, prompting Pliny to describe it to
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
as a
stone pine The Italian stone pine, botanical name ''Pinus pinea'', also known as the Mediterranean stone pine is a tree from the pine family (''Pinaceae''). The tree is native to the Mediterranean region, occurring in Southern Europe and the Levant. The ...
tree. The prevailing winds at the time blew toward the southeast, causing the volcanic material to fall primarily on the city of
Pompeii Pompeii ( ; ) was a city in what is now the municipality of Pompei, near Naples, in the Campania region of Italy. Along with Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Villa Boscoreale, many surrounding villas, the city was buried under of volcanic ash and p ...
and the surrounding area. Since Herculaneum lay west of Vesuvius, it was only mildly affected by the first phase of the eruption. While roofs in Pompeii collapsed under the weight of falling debris, only a few centimetres of ash fell on Herculaneum, causing little damage; nevertheless, the ash prompted most inhabitants to flee. The volcano continued spewing up a high-altitude column from which ash and pumice began to fall, blanketing the area. At 1 am the next day, the eruptive column collapsed onto Vesuvius and its flanks. The first
pyroclastic surge A pyroclastic surge is a fluidised mass of turbulent gas and rock fragments that is ejected during some volcanic eruptions. It is similar to a pyroclastic flow but it has a lower density or contains a much higher ratio of gas to rock, which makes i ...
, formed by a mixture of ash and hot gases, flowed down the mountain and through the mostly-evacuated town of Herculaneum at . A succession of six flows and surges buried the city's buildings to approximately depth, causing little damage in some areas and preserving structures, objects and victims almost intact. However, other areas were damaged significantly, knocking down walls, tearing away columns and other large objects; a marble statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus near the baths was blown away and a carbonised skeleton was found lifted above ground level in the garden of the House of the Relief of
Telephus In Greek mythology, Telephus (; , ''Tēlephos'', "far-shining") was the son of Heracles and Auge, who was the daughter of king Aleus of Tegea. He was adopted by Teuthras, the king of Mysia, in Asia Minor, whom he succeeded as king. Telephus was ...
. The date of the eruption has been shown to be on or after 17 October. Support for an October/November eruption has long been known in several respects: buried people in the ash were wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August; fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October – and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October; coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th imperatorial acclamation among the emperor's titles and could not have been minted before the second week of September. Multidisciplinary research on the lethal effects of the
pyroclastic surge A pyroclastic surge is a fluidised mass of turbulent gas and rock fragments that is ejected during some volcanic eruptions. It is similar to a pyroclastic flow but it has a lower density or contains a much higher ratio of gas to rock, which makes i ...
s in the Vesuvius area has shown that, in the vicinity of Pompeii and Herculaneum, intense heat was the main cause of the death of people who had previously been thought to have died by ash suffocation. Exposure to ≥250 Â°C (480 Â°F) had likely killed residents within 10 km, including those sheltering in buildings.


Archaeology

Prince d'
Elbeuf Elbeuf () is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region in northern France. Geography A light industrial town situated by the banks of the Seine some south of Rouen at the junction of the D7, D321 and the D313 roads. The ...
began constructing a villa in neighbouring Granatello, and to furnish it, he grew intrigued in local tales of wells containing antique sculptures and artworks. In 1709, he acquired the site of a recently dug well and tunnelled out from its bottom in search of sculptures. The tunnel reached what would be later identified as a theatre, where remarkable sculptures were uncovered. Among the earliest sculptures discovered were two exquisitely carved Herculaneum women, currently housed in the
Skulpturensammlung The Skulpturensammlung (English: Sculpture Collection) is part of the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden (Dresden State Art Collections). It is located in the Albertinum in Dresden. The collection of the Dresden Skulpturensammlung ranges in age ...
in
Dresden Dresden (; ; Upper Saxon German, Upper Saxon: ''Dräsdn''; , ) is the capital city of the States of Germany, German state of Saxony and its second most populous city after Leipzig. It is the List of cities in Germany by population, 12th most p ...
. The excavation ceased in 1711 out of concern about the stability of the structures above. Major excavations resumed in 1738 under the patronage of
Charles III of Spain Charles III (; 20 January 1716 – 14 December 1788) was King of Spain in the years 1759 to 1788. He was also Duke of Parma and Piacenza, as Charles I (1731–1735); King of Naples, as Charles VII; and King of Sicily, as Charles III (or V) (1735â ...
, who had recently begun building his nearby palace in Portici. He appointed the Italian military engineer Giovanni Antonio Medrano and Roque Joaquin de Alcubierre to supervise the extensive new project. The publication of " Le Antichità di Ercolano" ("The Antiquities of Herculaneum") had a striking influence on nascent European
Neoclassicism Neoclassicism, also spelled Neo-classicism, emerged as a Western cultural movement in the decorative arts, decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiq ...
; by the end of the 18th century, motifs from Herculaneum began to appear on fashionable furnishings, including decorative wall-paintings, tripod tables, perfume burners, and teacups. Nonetheless, excavation ceased once again in 1762 as a result of Winckelmann's harsh criticism of the treasure-hunting techniques. The discovery of neighbouring Pompeii, substantially simpler to excavate due to a smaller layer of material covering the site (4m as compared to 20m at Herculaneum), diverted attention and effort. King Francis I ordered land acquisitions and promoted renewed excavations between 1828 and 1837. Acquisitions continued under the newly formed
Kingdom of Italy The Kingdom of Italy (, ) was a unitary state that existed from 17 March 1861, when Victor Emmanuel II of Kingdom of Sardinia, Sardinia was proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, proclaimed King of Italy, until 10 June 1946, when the monarchy wa ...
, extending excavations eastwards till 1875. From 1927 until 1942, Amedeo Maiuri conducted a new campaign, sponsored by
Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who, upon assuming office as Prime Minister, became the dictator of Fascist Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his overthrow in 194 ...
's regime, which unearthed approximately four hectares which today are part of the archaeological park. Hundreds of skeletons were found in the so-called "boat houses", by the ancient shoreline, between 1980 and 1981. The
Villa of the Papyri The Villa of the Papyri (, also known as ''Villa dei Pisoni'' and in early excavation records as the ''Villa Suburbana'') was an ancient Roman Empire, Roman villa in Herculaneum, in what is now Ercolano, southern Italy. It is named after its un ...
, the northwest baths, the House of the
Dionysian The Apollonian and the Dionysian are philosophical and literary concepts represented by a duality between the figures of Apollo and Dionysus from Greek mythology. Its popularization is widely attributed to the work ''The Birth of Tragedy'' by Fri ...
Reliefs and a large collapsed monument were brought to light between 1996 and 1999. However, the area was left in a chaotic state until major conservation interventions from 2000 through 2007. Many public and private buildings, including the forum complex, are yet to be excavated.


The city

The classical street layout separates the city into blocks ('' insulae''), defined by the intersection of the east–west (''cardi'') and north–south (''decumani'') streets. Hence Insula II to Insula VII run counterclockwise from Insula II. To the east are two additional blocks: Orientalis I (oI) and Orientalis II (oII). To the south of Orientalis I (oI) lies one additional group of buildings known as the "Suburban District" (SD). Individual buildings have their own entrance number. For example, the House of the Deer is labelled (Ins IV, 3). The Forum, temples, theatre, numerous houses and necropoles are still buried. Due to bradyseism, which affects the entire Vesuvius region, portions of the historic city of Herculaneum today lie as much as 4 metres below sea level. A single main drain collected water from the Forum and from house ''
impluvium The ''impluvium'' (: ''impluvia'') is a water-catchment pool system meant to capture rain-water flowing from the ''compluvium'', an area of roof. Often placed in a courtyard, under an opening in the roof, and thus "inside", instead of "outside ...
s'',
latrine A latrine is a toilet or an even simpler facility that is used as a toilet within a sanitation system. For example, it can be a communal trench in the earth in a camp to be used as emergency sanitation, a hole in the ground ( pit latrine), or ...
s and kitchens along Cardo III. Other drains emptied directly into the street, except latrines equipped with a cesspit. For water supply, the city was directly connected to the Serino aqueduct, built in the Augustan age, which brought water to buildings through a series of lead pipes under the roads, regulated by valves; wells had been used previously.


The House of Aristides (Ins II, 1)

The first building in insula II is the House of Aristides. The entrance opens directly onto the atrium, but the ruins are not well preserved due to damage caused by previous excavations. The lower floor was probably used for storage.


The House of Argus (Ins II, 2)

The second house in insula II takes its name from a lost fresco of Argus and Io that once adorned a reception room off the large
peristyle In ancient Ancient Greek architecture, Greek and Ancient Roman architecture, Roman architecture, a peristyle (; ) is a continuous porch formed by a row of columns surrounding the perimeter of a building or a courtyard. ''Tetrastoön'' () is a rare ...
. This structure was likely one of Herculaneum's finest villas. It was the first time that a second story had been unearthed in such detail when the house was discovered in the late 1820s. The excavation uncovered a balcony on the second level overlooking Cardo III, as well as wooden shelving and cupboards now lost.


The House of the Genius (Ins II, 3)

North of the House of Argus lies the House of the
Genius Genius is a characteristic of original and exceptional insight in the performance of some art or endeavor that surpasses expectations, sets new standards for the future, establishes better methods of operation, or remains outside the capabiliti ...
. Although it has only been partially uncovered, it appears to have been a vast structure. Its name derives from a statue of a
Cupid In classical mythology, Cupid ( , meaning "passionate desire") is the god of desire, erotic love, attraction and affection. He is often portrayed as the son of the love goddess Venus and the god of war Mars. He is also known as Amor (Latin: ...
, once part of a candlestick. In the centre of the peristyle are the remains of a rectangular basin.


The House of the Alcove (Ins IV)

The house consists of two adjoined structures with a mix of plain, simple spaces and finely-decorated rooms. The '' atrium'' is covered and lacks the usual ''
impluvium The ''impluvium'' (: ''impluvia'') is a water-catchment pool system meant to capture rain-water flowing from the ''compluvium'', an area of roof. Often placed in a courtyard, under an opening in the roof, and thus "inside", instead of "outside ...
''. It retains its original flooring of ''opus tesselatum'' and '' opus sectile''. A highly adorned ''biclinium'' (a dining-couch for two persons'')'' with frescoes in the '' fourth style'' and a spacious ''
triclinium A ''triclinium'' (: ''triclinia'') is a formal dining room in a Ancient Rome, Roman building. The word is adopted from the Greek language, Greek ()—from (), "three", and (), a sort of couch, or rather chaise longue. Each couch was sized to ...
'' originally marble-floored are found off the ''atrium''. Several further rooms, including the
apse In architecture, an apse (: apses; from Latin , 'arch, vault'; from Ancient Greek , , 'arch'; sometimes written apsis; : apsides) is a semicircular recess covered with a hemispherical Vault (architecture), vault or semi-dome, also known as an ' ...
d alcove after which the house is named, are accessible via a corridor receiving daylight from a small courtyard.


College of the Augustales

Temple of the Augustales or priests of the
Imperial cult An imperial cult is a form of state religion in which an emperor or a dynasty of emperors (or rulers of another title) are worshipped as demigods or deities. "Cult (religious practice), Cult" here is used to mean "worship", not in the modern pejor ...
.


Central Baths

The Central baths (''
thermae In ancient Rome, (from Greek , "hot") and (from Greek ) were facilities for bathing. usually refers to the large Roman Empire, imperial public bath, bath complexes, while were smaller-scale facilities, public or private, that existed i ...
'') were built around the 1st century AD. There were separate bathing areas for men and women. The ''thermae'' also served as a prominent cultural hub.


Villa of the Papyri

The famous
Villa of the Papyri The Villa of the Papyri (, also known as ''Villa dei Pisoni'' and in early excavation records as the ''Villa Suburbana'') was an ancient Roman Empire, Roman villa in Herculaneum, in what is now Ercolano, southern Italy. It is named after its un ...
, was built on the seashore on four terraces. It is thought to have belonged to consul Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus,
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...
's father-in-law, who was a patron of poets and philosophers and built there the only ancient library that has survived virtually intact. Between 1752 and 1754, a number of blackened, unreadable
papyrus Papyrus ( ) is a material similar to thick paper that was used in ancient times as a writing surface. It was made from the pith of the papyrus plant, ''Cyperus papyrus'', a wetland sedge. ''Papyrus'' (plural: ''papyri'' or ''papyruses'') can a ...
scrolls were recovered from the Villa of the Papyri by workmen. These scrolls became known as the Herculaneum papyri or scrolls, the majority of which are today stored at the National Library, Naples. Although badly carbonized, a number of scrolls have been unrolled with varying degrees of success. Computer-enhanced multi-spectral infrared imaging helped make the ink legible. There is now a real prospect that it will be possible to read the unopened rolls using
X-ray An X-ray (also known in many languages as Röntgen radiation) is a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than those of ultraviolet rays and longer than those of gamma rays. Roughly, X-rays have a wavelength ran ...
s. The same techniques could be applied to the rolls waiting to be discovered in the as-yet unexcavated part of the villa, eliminating the risk of potential damage from unrolling. Later
CT scan A computed tomography scan (CT scan), formerly called computed axial tomography scan (CAT scan), is a medical imaging technique used to obtain detailed internal images of the body. The personnel that perform CT scans are called radiographers or ...
revealed the scrolls' fibres structure, sand, and other debris trapped in the scrolls. These findings help a safer unrolling. However, the text remains illegible. Two of the rolls stored at the French National Academy in Paris have been extensively examined by
X-ray An X-ray (also known in many languages as Röntgen radiation) is a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than those of ultraviolet rays and longer than those of gamma rays. Roughly, X-rays have a wavelength ran ...
in summer 2009. However, the text imaging failed because Roman writers likely used carbon-based inks, essentially invisible to the X-ray scans. Similar later attempts all failed. In 2015, a team of scientists managed to increase the contrast between the carbon ink and the carbon-based papyrus using X-ray Phase Contrast Tomography, and read Greek words along the outer papyrus, marking "a revolution for
papyrologist Papyrology is the study of manuscripts of ancient literature, correspondence, legal archives, etc., preserved on portable media from antiquity, the most common form of which is papyrus, the principal writing material in the ancient civilizations ...
s". While researchers can identify certain words on the scrolls, the stories on the scrolls cannot yet be unlocked. In 2024 the winners of a contest called the Vesuvius Challenge, with the help of AI, managed to reveal hundreds of words across 15 columns of text, corresponding to around 5% of a scroll.


Boathouses and the Shore

In 1980–82, excavations initially turned up more than 55 skeletons on the ancient beach (just in front of the city walls) and in the first six so-called "boat sheds". Long before this finding, it was believed that the majority of the town's inhabitants had managed to flee, as only a few skeletons had been unearthed during the excavations. However, this discovery led to a shift in perspective. The last inhabitants waiting for rescue from the sea were probably killed instantly by the intense heat of the
pyroclastic flow A pyroclastic flow (also known as a pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra) that flows along the ground away from a volcano at average speeds of b ...
, despite being sheltered from direct impact. A study of victims' postures and the effects on their skeletons seemed to indicate that the first surge caused instant death as a result of fulminant shock due to a temperature of about . Extreme heat caused hands and feet to contract and perhaps fractured bones and teeth. After a period of finds being mismanaged and deterioration of skeletons, further excavations in the 1990s uncovered 296 skeletons on the beach or huddled in 9 of the 12 stone vaults facing the sea. While the town was almost completely evacuated, these people found themselves trapped. The "Ring Lady", named for the rings on her fingers, was discovered there in 1982. Eventually, 340 bodies were identified in this area. Analyses of the skeletons suggest it was mainly men who died on the beach, while women and children sheltered and died in the boat houses. A scientific study, published in 2021, showed that chemical analysis of the remains was able to provide further insights into the health and nutrition of Herculaneum's population. Stable isotope analysis of bone samples from 17 individuals (11 men and 6 women) revealed the men ate 1.6 times more fish than the women, who consumed more meat, eggs, and dairy; this fits into the wider dietary trend from Herculaneum and Roman Italy. Casts of skeletons were also produced to replace the original bones after taphonomic study, scientific documentation and excavation. In contrast to Pompeii, where casts resembling the body features of the victims were produced by filling hollowed spaces of the body imprints in the ash deposit with plaster, the shape of corpses at Herculaneum could not be preserved due to the rapid vaporisation and replacement of the flesh of the victims by the hot ash (ca. 500 Â°C). A cast of the skeletons unearthed in chamber 10 is on display at the Museum of Anthropology in Naples. Of exceptional interest is the analysis, published in 2021, of one of the skeletons (n. 26) discovered in 1982 on the beach next to a boat (on display in the boat pavilion). The remains belong to a military officer (with an elaborate dagger and belt), who was perhaps involved in a rescue mission.


Issues of conservation

The volcanic ash and debris covering Herculaneum, along with the extreme heat, left it in a remarkable state of preservation for over 1,600 years. However, once excavations began, exposure to the elements began the slow process of deterioration. This was exacerbated by earlier excavation practices, which generally focused on valuable artifacts rather than preserving the archaeological value of the site. Preservation of the skeletal remains became a top priority only in the early 1980s, under the direction of Sara C. Bisel. Intensive tourism, vandalism, substandard management, and political ineptitude contributed to the deterioration of numerous sites and buildings. Numerous building foundations have been weakened by water damage caused by modern
Ercolano Ercolano () is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania of Southern Italy. It lies at the western foot of Mount Vesuvius, on the Bay of Naples, just southeast of the city of Naples. The medieval town of Resina () was bui ...
. Reconstruction initiatives have often proved counterproductive. However, recent conservation efforts have had greater success. Excavations have been temporarily discontinued to direct all funding to conservation programs. A large number of artifacts from Herculaneum are preserved in the
Naples National Archaeological Museum The National Archaeological Museum of Naples (, ) is an important Italian archaeological museum. Its collection includes works from Greek, Roman and Renaissance times, and especially Roman artifacts from the nearby Pompeii, Stabiae and Hercu ...
.


Modern conservation

After years of mismanagement, Herculaneum fell into a dire state. However, in 2001, the
Packard Humanities Institute The Packard Humanities Institute (PHI) is a non-profit foundation, established in 1987, and located in Los Altos, California, which funds projects in a wide range of conservation concerns in the fields of archaeology, music, film preservation, ...
began the Herculaneum Conservation Project, a private–public partnership initially set to provide financial aid to local authorities addressing critical issues. The program eventually shifted to include providing skilled expert support and formulating a long-term plan for the site. Since 2001, the Herculaneum Conservation Project has been involved in pilot conservation projects and has partnered with the
British School at Rome The British School at Rome (BSR) is a British interdisciplinary research centre supporting the arts, humanities and architecture established in Rome. Historical and archaeological study are at the core of its activities. History The British Sc ...
for training students to maintain the site. One of the pilot projects started by the Conservation Project was on the ''
tablinum In Roman architecture, a (or , from , board, picture) was a room in a ''domus'' (house) generally situated on one side of the atrium and opposite to the entrance; it opened in the rear onto the peristyle, with either a large window or only an a ...
'' that had been conserved by Maiuri's team in 1938. Over time water had seeped into the wall causing the paint to attach to the previously applied wax and curl away from the wall, stripping it of its colour. However, after working in tandem with the
Getty Museum The J. Paul Getty Museum, commonly referred to as the Getty, is an art museum in Los Angeles, California, United States, housed on two campuses: the Getty Center and Getty Villa. It is operated by the J. Paul Getty Trust, the world's wealthies ...
, conservators have created a technique where solvents are used to remove some of the wax and lessen the buildup on the walls so that the paint no longer chips off.


Gallery

File:Ercolano 2003.jpg, House Number 22 is noted for this outstanding summer ''
triclinium A ''triclinium'' (: ''triclinia'') is a formal dining room in a Ancient Rome, Roman building. The word is adopted from the Greek language, Greek ()—from (), "three", and (), a sort of couch, or rather chaise longue. Each couch was sized to ...
'' with a '' nymphaeum'' decorated with coloured mosaics. File:Neptune Amphitrite mosaic Herculaneum.jpg, Herculaneum, Neptune and Salacia, wall mosaic in House Number 22 File:Roman Road Surface at Herculaneum.jpg, Street paving stones in Herculaneum File:Water Pipe In Herculaneum.jpg, Residential water pipe made of lead in Herculaneum File:Herculaneum Wall 1.Style.jpg, Wall paintings in the '' first style'' File:Herculaneum Floor.jpg, Inlaid marble floor File:Marcus-Nonius-Balbus-The-Elder-Resina-1908-Barker-Herculaneum.jpg, Marcus Nonius Balbus, found in dwellings of Resina/Herculaneum. File:Posthumous painted portrait of Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from Herculaneum, Italy.jpg, Most likely a posthumous painted portrait of
Cleopatra VII Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator (; The name Cleopatra is pronounced , or sometimes in both British and American English, see and respectively. Her name was pronounced in the Greek dialect of Egypt (see Koine Greek phonology). She was ...
of
Ptolemaic Egypt Ptolemaic is the adjective formed from the name Ptolemy, and may refer to: Pertaining to the Ptolemaic dynasty * Ptolemaic dynasty, the Macedonian Greek dynasty that ruled Egypt founded in 305 BC by Ptolemy I Soter *Ptolemaic Kingdom Pertaining ...
with
red hair Red hair, also known as ginger hair, is a human hair color found in 2–6% of people of northern Europe, Northern or Northwestern European ancestry and lesser frequency in other populations. It is most common in individuals Zygosity#Homozy ...
and her distinct facial features, wearing a royal
diadem A diadem is a Crown (headgear), crown, specifically an ornamental headband worn by monarchs and others as a badge of Monarch, royalty. Overview The word derives from the Ancient Greek, Greek διάδημα ''diádēma'', "band" or "fillet", fro ...
and pearl-studded hairpins, from Roman Herculaneum, mid-1st century AD File:Runners MAN Napoli Inv5626-7 n02.jpg,
Bronze sculptures Bronze is the most popular metal for Casting (metalworking), cast metal sculptures; a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply "a bronze". It can be used for statues, singly or in groups, reliefs, and small statuettes and figurines, as w ...
of runners from the
Villa of the Papyri The Villa of the Papyri (, also known as ''Villa dei Pisoni'' and in early excavation records as the ''Villa Suburbana'') was an ancient Roman Empire, Roman villa in Herculaneum, in what is now Ercolano, southern Italy. It is named after its un ...
at Herculaneum, now in the
Naples National Archaeological Museum The National Archaeological Museum of Naples (, ) is an important Italian archaeological museum. Its collection includes works from Greek, Roman and Renaissance times, and especially Roman artifacts from the nearby Pompeii, Stabiae and Hercu ...
File:Viw of Herculaneum docks in 2015.jpg, View from above Herculaneum showing the docks File:View from above Herculaneum in 2015.jpg, View from above Herculaneum with Mt. Vesuvius in the background File:Herculaneum Columns in 2015.jpg, Still-standing columns with paint File:Herculaneum Road in 2015.jpg, Paved street in Herculaneum File:Herculaneum Pottery in 2015.jpg, Ceramics recovered and on display File:Herculaneum Art in 2015.jpg, Wall paintings


Documentaries

* A 1987 ''National Geographic'' special, '' In the Shadow of Vesuvius'', explored the sites of
Pompeii Pompeii ( ; ) was a city in what is now the municipality of Pompei, near Naples, in the Campania region of Italy. Along with Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Villa Boscoreale, many surrounding villas, the city was buried under of volcanic ash and p ...
and Herculaneum, interviewed archaeologists, and examined the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius. * The 2002 documentary "Herculaneum. An unlucky escape" is based on research of Pier Paolo Petrone, Giuseppe Mastrolorenzo and Mario Pagano. Co-production of DocLab Rome, Discovery Channel USA, France 3 – Taxi Brousse, Spiegel TV, Mediatred, 52'. * A 2004 documentary "Pompeii and the 79 AD eruption". TBS Channel Tokyo Broadcasting System, 120'. * An hour-long drama produced for the
BBC The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. Originally established in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company, it evolved into its current sta ...
entitled '' Pompeii: The Last Day'' portrays several characters (with historically attested names but fictional stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the
Bay of Naples A bay is a recessed, coastal body of water that directly connects to a larger main body of water, such as an ocean, a lake, or another bay. A large bay is usually called a ''gulf'', ''sea'', ''sound'', or ''bight''. A ''cove'' is a small, ci ...
, and their last hours, including a fuller and his wife, two
gladiator A gladiator ( , ) was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their ...
s, and Pliny the Elder. It also portrays the facts of the eruption.
Pompeii Live
Five (channel), Channel 5, 28 June 2006, 8pm, live archaeological dig at Pompeii and Herculaneum. * Marcellino de Baggis' 2007 documentary "Herculaneum: Diaries of Darkness and Light", Onionskin productions. * The 2007 documentary "Troja ist überall: Auferstehung am Vesuv", Spiegel TV, 43'29. * "Secrets of the Dead: Herculaneum Uncovered" is a PBS show covering the archaeological discoveries at Herculaneum. * "Out of the Ashes: Recovering the Lost Library of Herculaneum" is a KBYU-TV documentary that traces the history of the Herculaneum papyri from the time of the eruption to their discovery in 1752 to modern developments that impact their study. * "The Other Pompeii: Life and Death in Herculaneum" is a documentary presented by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, director of Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Herculaneum Conservation Project. * "Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time"Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time
/ref> is a 2013 BBC One drama documentary presented by Margaret Mountford. * "Pompeii: The New Revelations" was broadcast on UK TV channel 5 in 2021. * "Unearthed: Vesuvius' Secret Victim." Documents the city of Herculaneum and the lives of its people. It revealed that over 1,000 people of Herculaneum's 5,000 citizens had survived the eruption and were resettled in Naples and Cumae.


See also

* List of Roman sites


Notes


References


Sources

* National Geographic, Vol 162, No. 6. ''Buried Roman Town Give Up Its Dead,'' (December, 1982) * National Geographic, Vol 165, No 5. ''The Dead Do Tell Tales,'' (May, 1984) * Discover, magazine, Vol 5, No. 10. ''The Bone Lady'' (October, 1984) * The Mayo Alumnus, Vol 19, No. 2. ''An Archaeologist's Preliminary Report: Time Warp at Herculaneum,'' (April, 1983) * Carnegie Mellon Magazine, Vol 4, No. 2. ''Bone Lady Reconstructs People at Herculaneum,'' Winter, 1985 * ''In the Shadow of Vesuvius'' National Geographic Special, (11 February 1987) * ''30 years of National Geographic Special,'' (25 January 1995) * Petrone P.P., Fedele F. (a cura di), 2002. ''Vesuvio 79 A.D. Vita e morte ad Ercolano,'' Fridericiana Editrice Universitaria, Napoli. * Antonio Virgili, Culti misterici ed orientali a Pompei, Gangemi, Roma, 2008. * National Geographic, Vol 212, No. 3. ''Vesuvius. Asleep for Now,'' (September, 2006


Further reading

* Brennan, B. 2018.''Herculaneum A Roman Town Reborn.'' Sydney: Ancient History Seminars. * Brennan, B. 2012. ''Herculaneum A Sourcebook.'' Sydney: Ancient History Seminars. *Burlot, Delphine. (2011). The Disegni intagliati: A forgotten book illustrating the first discoveries at Herculaneum, ''Journal of the History of Collections''. V. 23, (May):15–28. * Capasso, L. 2001. ''I fuggiaschi di Ercolano. Paleobiologia delle vittime dell' eruzione vesuviana del 79 d.C.'' Roma: L'Erma di Bretschneider * Daehner, J., ed. 2007. ''The Herculaneum Women: History, Context, Identities.'' Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. * De Carolis, E., and G. Patricelli. 2003. ''Vesuvius, A.D. 79: The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum.'' Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. * Deiss, J. J. 1995. ''The Town of Hercules: A Buried Treasure Trove.'' Malibu, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum. * Lazer, E. 2009. ''Resurrecting Pompeii.'' London: Routledge. * Losansky, G. 2015. ''Die Obergeschossareale der Stadthäuser in Herculaneum. Architektonische Anlage, raumkontextuelle Einordnung und häusliches Leben'' [The upper floor areas of the townhouses in Herculaneum. Architectural layout, spatial contextualisation and domestic life]. Wiesbaden: Reichert. * Pace, S. 2000. ''Herculaneum and European Culture Between the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.'' Naples, Italy: Electa. * Pagano, M. 2000. ''Herculaneum: A Reasoned Archaeological Itinerary.'' Translated by A. Pesce. Naples, Italy: T&M. * Pagano, M., and A. Balasco. 2000. ''The Ancient Theatre of Herculaneum.'' Translated by C. Fordham. Naples, Italy: Electa. * Pirozzi, M. E. A. 2000. ''Herculaneum: The Excavations, Local History and Surroundings.'' Naples, Italy : Electa. * Scarth, A. 2009. ''Vesuvius: A Biography.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Wallace-Hadrill, A. 2011. "The Monumental Centre of Herculaneum: In Search of the Identities of the Public Buildings." ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'' 24:121–160.


Resources

*
Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo; 61 – ), better known in English as Pliny the Younger ( ), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and e ...
's letters on the catastrophic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. to the Roman historian
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
from University of Arizona
Pliny the Younger, Letters 6.16 and 6.20 to Cornelius Tacitus
and in Project Gutenberg
Letter LXV – To Tacitus


External links


The local archaeological authorities – Official website

Herculaneum Conservation Project – Official website

AD 79: Year of Destruction
* 62 Pompeii earthquake * Herculaneum papyri
Blogging Pompeii

The Friends of Herculaneum Society


* [http://magazine.byu.edu/?act=view&a=43 Brigham Young University: Herculaneum Scrolls]
Herculaneum
by Iain Dickson, 'Melvadius Macrinus Cugerni'
Herculaneum Uncovered
Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead *
Romano-Campanian Wall-Painting (English, Italian, Spanish and French introduction)

"Herculaneum Uncovered – A conversation with Andrew Wallace-Hadrill"
, ''Ideas Roadshow'', 2013 * {{Authority control Herculaneum, Roman towns and cities in Italy Roman sites of Campania Destroyed populated places Natural disaster ghost towns Archaeological parks Archaeological sites in Campania Coastal towns in Campania Museums of ancient Rome in Italy National museums of Italy Former populated places in Italy Populated places established in the 1st millennium BC 1st-millennium BC establishments in Italy Ercolano Heracles Human remains (archaeological) Mount Vesuvius 1738 archaeological discoveries World Heritage Sites in Italy 79 disestablishments Populated places disestablished in the 1st century