The Helvetii (, ,
Gaulish
Gaulish is an extinct Celtic languages, Celtic language spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during the period of the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language of the Celts of Gaul (now France, Luxembourg, Belgium, ...
: *''Heluētī''), anglicized as Helvetians, were a
Celtic tribe or tribal confederation
occupying most of the
Swiss plateau at the time of their
contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC. According to
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...
, the Helvetians were divided into four subgroups or ''
pagi.'' Of these, Caesar names only the
Verbigeni and the
Tigurini, while
Posidonius mentions the Tigurini and the Tougeni (). They feature prominently in the ''
Commentaries on the Gallic War,'' with their failed migration attempt to southwestern
Gaul
Gaul () was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Roman people, Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of . Ac ...
(58 BC) serving as a catalyst for
Caesar's conquest of Gaul.
The Helvetians were subjugated after 52 BC, and under
Augustus, Celtic
oppida, such as
Vindonissa or
Basilea, were re-purposed as garrisons. In AD 68, a Helvetian uprising was crushed by
Aulus Caecina Alienus.
The Swiss plateau was at first incorporated into the Roman province of
Gallia Belgica (22 BC), later into
Germania Superior
Germania Superior ("Upper Germania") was an imperial province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of today's western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany. Important cities were Besançon ('' Vesont ...
(AD 83).
The Helvetians, like the rest of Gaul, were largely
Romanized
In linguistics, romanization is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, ...
by the 2nd century.
In the later 3rd century, Roman control over the region waned, and the Swiss plateau was exposed to the invading
Alemanni
The Alemanni or Alamanni were a confederation of Germanic peoples, Germanic tribes
*
*
*
on the Upper Rhine River during the first millennium. First mentioned by Cassius Dio in the context of the campaign of Roman emperor Caracalla of 213 CE ...
. The Alemanni and
Burgundians
The Burgundians were an early Germanic peoples, Germanic tribe or group of tribes. They appeared east in the middle Rhine region in the third century AD, and were later moved west into the Roman Empire, in Roman Gaul, Gaul. In the first and seco ...
established permanent settlements in the Swiss plateau in the 5th and 6th centuries, resulting in the early medieval territories of
Alemannia (Swabia) and
Upper Burgundy. The Helvetii were largely
assimilated by their new rulers, contributing to the
ethnogenesis
Ethnogenesis (; ) is the formation and development of an ethnic group. This can originate by group self-identification or by outside identification.
The term ''ethnogenesis'' was originally a mid-19th-century neologism that was later introduce ...
of modern
Swiss people
The Swiss people (, , , ) are the citizens of the multi-ethnic Swiss Confederation (Switzerland) regardless of ethno-cultural background or people of self-identified Swiss ancestry.
The number of Swiss nationals has grown from 1.7 million in ...
.
Name
They are mentioned as ''Helvetii'' by
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
(mid-1st c. BC),
Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars.
Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
(early 2nd c. AD), in the
genitive case
In grammar, the genitive case ( abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive ca ...
as ''Helvetiorum'' by
Livy
Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...
(late 1st c. BC), as ''Helveti'' by
Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), and as ''Elouḗtioi'' (Ἐλουήτιοι) by
Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy (; , ; ; – 160s/170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine science, Byzant ...
(2nd c. AD).
[, s.v. ''Helvetii''.]
The
Gaulish
Gaulish is an extinct Celtic languages, Celtic language spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during the period of the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language of the Celts of Gaul (now France, Luxembourg, Belgium, ...
ethnic name ''Helvetii'' is generally interpreted as ''(h)elu-ētioi'' ('rich in land'), from ''elu''- ('numerous', cf.
OIr. ''il'') attached to ''etu''- ('grassland'; cf. OIr. ''iath'').
The presence of the initial ''h''-, remnant of a previous ''p''- (
PIE ''*pelh
1u-'' > Celt. ''helu-'' > ''elu-''), attests of an archaic formation.
The earliest attestation of the name is found in a ''graffito'' on a vessel from
Mantua
Mantua ( ; ; Lombard language, Lombard and ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Italian region of Lombardy, and capital of the Province of Mantua, eponymous province.
In 2016, Mantua was designated as the "Italian Capital of Culture". In 2 ...
, dated to c. 300 BC. The inscription in
Etruscan letters reads ''eluveitie,'' which has been interpreted as the
Etruscan form of the Celtic ''elu̯eti̯os'' ("the Helvetian"), presumably referring to a man of Helvetian descent living in Mantua.
Tribal organisation
Of the four Helvetian ''pagi'' or sub-tribes, Caesar names only the Verbigeni (''Bell. Gall.'' 1.27) and the
Tigurini (1.12), Posidonius the Tigurini and the Tougeni ().
There has been substantial debate in
Swiss historiography (beginning with
Felix Stähelin 1927) on whether the Tougeni may or may not be identified with the
Teutones mentioned by
Titus Livius.
According to Caesar, the territory abandoned by the Helvetii had comprised 400 villages and 12 ''
oppida'' (fortified settlements). His tally of the total population taken from captured Helvetian records written in Greek is 263,000 people, including fighting men, old men, women and children. However, the figures are generally dismissed as too high by modern scholars (see
hereafter).
Like many other tribes, the Helvetii did not have kings at the time of their clash with Rome but instead seem to have been governed by a class of noblemen (Lat. ''
equites
The (; , though sometimes referred to as " knights" in English) constituted the second of the property/social-based classes of ancient Rome, ranking below the senatorial class. A member of the equestrian order was known as an ().
Descript ...
''). When
Orgetorix, one of their most prominent and ambitious noblemen, was making plans to establish himself as their king, he faced execution at the stake if found guilty. Caesar does not explicitly name the tribal authorities prosecuting the case and gathering men to apprehend Orgetorix, but he refers to them by the
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
terms ''civitas'' ("state" or "tribe") and ''magistratus'' ("officials").
History
Earliest historical sources and settlement
In his ''
Natural History'' (c. 77 AD),
Pliny provides a
foundation myth for the Celtic settlement of
Cisalpine Gaul in which a Helvetian named Helico plays the role of
culture hero. Helico had worked in Rome as a craftsman and then returned to his home north of the Alps with a dried fig, a grape, and some oil and wine, the desirability of which caused his countrymen to invade northern
Italy
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...
.
The Greek historian Posidonius (c. 135–50 BC), whose work is preserved only in fragments by other writers, offers the earliest historical record of the Helvetii. Posidonius described the Helvetians of the late 2nd century BC as "rich in gold but peaceful," without giving clear indication to the location of their territory. His reference to gold washing in rivers has been taken as evidence for an early presence of the Helvetii in the Swiss plateau, with the
Emme as being one of the gold-yielding rivers mentioned by Posidonius. This interpretation is now generally discarded, as Posidonius' narrative makes it more likely that the country some of the Helvetians left in order to join in the raids of the
Teutones,
Cimbri, and
Ambrones was in fact southern
Germany
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
and not
Switzerland
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...
.
That the Helvetians originally lived in southern Germany is confirmed by the
Alexandria
Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
n geographer
Claudius Ptolemaios (c. 90–168 AD), who tells us of an Ἐλουητίων ἔρημος (i.e. "Helvetic deserted lands") north of the
Rhine
The Rhine ( ) is one of the List of rivers of Europe, major rivers in Europe. The river begins in the Swiss canton of Graubünden in the southeastern Swiss Alps. It forms part of the Swiss-Liechtenstein border, then part of the Austria–Swit ...
.
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars.
Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
knows that the Helvetians once settled in the swath between
Rhine
The Rhine ( ) is one of the List of rivers of Europe, major rivers in Europe. The river begins in the Swiss canton of Graubünden in the southeastern Swiss Alps. It forms part of the Swiss-Liechtenstein border, then part of the Austria–Swit ...
,
Main, and the
Hercynian forest
The Hercynian Forest was an ancient and dense forest that stretched across Western Central Europe, from North French Scarplands, Northeastern France to the Carpathian Mountains, including most of Southern Germany, though its boundaries are a mat ...
. The abandonment of this northern territory is now usually placed in the late 2nd century BC, around the time of the first Germanic incursions into the Roman world, when the Tigurini and Toygenoi/Toutonoi are mentioned as participants in the great raids.
At the later
Vicus ''Turicum'', probably in the first 1st century BC or even much earlier, the Celts settled at the
Lindenhof Oppidium. In 1890, so-called ''
Potin lumps'' were found, whose largest weights at the
Prehistoric pile dwelling settlement ''
Alpenquai'' in Zürich, Switzerland. The pieces consist of a large number of fused
Celtic coins, which are mixed with charcoal remnants. Some of the 18,000 coins originate from the ''Eastern Gaul'', others are of the ''Zürich'' type, that were assigned to the local ''Helvetii'', which date to around 100 BC. The find is so far unique, and the scientific research assumes that the melting down of the lump was not completed, therefore the aim was to form cultic offerings. The site of the find was at that time at least from the lake shore, and probably to three meters deep in the water.
[''Keltisches Geld in Zürich: Der spektakuläre «Potinklumpen»''. Amt für Städtebau der Stadt Zürich, Stadtarchäologie, Zürich October 2007.] There's also an island sanctuary of the Helvetii in connection with the settlement at the preceding Oppidi Uetliberg on the former ''
Grosser Hafner'' island, as well as the settlement ''
Kleiner Hafner''
at the
''Sechseläuten square'' on the effluence of the
Limmat on
Zürichsee lake shore.
First contact with the Romans
The Germanic tribes of the
Cimbri and
Ambrones probably reached southern Germany around the year 111 BC, where they were joined by the
Tigurini, and, probably the
Teutoni-Toutonoi-Toygenoi. (The precise identity of the latter group is unclear).
The tribes began a joint invasion of Gaul, including the Roman
Provincia Narbonensis. A Roman army under the consul
L. Cassius Longinus opposed them. At the
Battle of Burdigala near
Agendicum in 107 BC, the Tigurini killed Longinus and captured many of his soldiers. According to Caesar, the captured Roman soldiers were ordered to pass under a yoke set up by the triumphant Gauls, a dishonour that called for both public as well as private vengeance. Caesar is the only narrative source for this episode, as the corresponding books of
Livy
Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...
's histories are preserved only in the ''Periochae'', short summarising lists of contents, in which hostages given by the Romans, but no yoke, are mentioned.
In 105 BC, the allies defeated another Roman army near
Arausio and went on to harry Spain, Gaul,
Noricum
Noricum () is the Latin name for the kingdom or federation of tribes that included most of modern Austria and part of Slovenia. In the first century AD, it became a province of the Roman Empire. Its borders were the Danube to the north, R ...
, and northern Italy. They split up in two groups in 103 BC, with the Teutones and Ambrones marching on a western route through the ''
Provincia'' and the Cimbri and Tigurini crossing the eastern Alps (probably by the
Brenner Pass). While the Teutones and Ambrones were slaughtered in 102 BC by
Gaius Marius near
Aquae Sextiae, the Cimbri and the Tigurini wintered in the
Padan plain. The following year, Marius virtually destroyed the Cimbri in the
battle of Vercellae
The Battle of Vercellae or Battle of the Raudine Plain was fought on 30 July 101 BC on a plain near Vercellae in Gallia Cisalpina (modern-day Northern Italy). A Celto-Germanic confederation under the command of the Cimbric king Boiorix was de ...
. The Tigurini, who had planned on following the Cimbri, turned back over the Alps with their booty and joined those of the Helvetians who had not participated in the raids.
Caesar and the Helvetian campaign of 58 BC
Prelude
The Helvetii were the first Gallic tribe of the campaign to be confronted by Caesar. He narrates the events of the conflict in the opening sections of ''
Commentarii de Bello Gallico''. Due to the political nature of the ''Commentarii'', Caesar's purpose in publicizing his own achievements may have distorted the significance of events and the motives of those who participated.
The nobleman
Orgetorix is presented as the instigator of a new Helvetian migration, in which the entire tribe was to leave their territory and, according to Caesar, to establish a supremacy over all of Gaul. This exodus was planned over three years, in the course of which Orgetorix conspired with two noblemen from neighbouring tribes,
Casticus of the
Sequani and
Dumnorix of the
Aedui, that each should accomplish a
coup d'état in his own country, after which the three new kings would collaborate. When word of his aspirations to make himself king reached the Helvetii, Orgetorix was summoned to stand trial, facing execution on the pyre should he be found guilty. For the time being, he averted a verdict by arriving at the hearing set for him with ten thousand followers and bondsmen; yet before the large force mustered by the authorities could apprehend him, he died under unexplained circumstances, the Helvetii believed by his own hand.
Nevertheless, the Helvetii did not give up their planned emigration, but burned their homes in 58 BC. They were joined by a number of tribal groups from neighbouring regions: the Raurici, the
Latobrigi, the
Tulingi and a group of
Boii, who had besieged
Noreia. They abandoned their homes completely with the intention of settling among the
Santones (
Saintonge). The easiest route would take them through the
Rhône valley, and thus through the Roman ''
Provincia Narbonensis''.
Battle of the Saône
When they reached the boundaries of the
Allobroges
The Allobroges (Gaulish language, Gaulish: *''Allobrogis'', 'foreigner, exiled'; ) were a Gauls, Gallic people dwelling in a large territory between the Rhône river and the Alps during the Iron Age Europe, Iron Age and the Roman period.
The Allob ...
, the northernmost tribe of the ''Provincia'', they found that Caesar had already dismantled the bridge of
Geneva
Geneva ( , ; ) ; ; . is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland and the most populous in French-speaking Romandy. Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the ca ...
to stop their advance. The Helvetians sent "the most illustrious men of their state" to negotiate, promising a peaceful passage through the ''Provincia''. Caesar stalled them by asking for some time for consideration, which he used to assemble reinforcements and to fortify the southern banks of the
Rhône
The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...
. When the embassy returned on the agreed-upon date, he was strong enough to bluntly reject their offer. The Helvetii now chose the more difficult northern route through the
Sequani territory, which traversed the
Jura Mountains
The Jura Mountains ( ) are a sub-alpine mountain range a short distance north of the Western Alps and mainly demarcate a long part of the French–Swiss border. While the Jura range proper (" folded Jura", ) is located in France and Switzerla ...
via a very narrow pass at the site of the modern
Fort l'Écluse, but bypassed the ''Provincia''. After ravaging the lands of the
Aedui tribe, who called upon Caesar to help them, they began the crossing of the
Saône, which took them several days. As only a quarter of their forces were left on the eastern banks, Caesar attacked and routed them. According to Caesar, those killed had been the
Tigurini, on whom he had now taken revenge in the name of the Republic and his family.
After the battle, the Romans quickly bridged the river, thereby prompting the Helvetii to once again send an embassy, this time led by
Divico, another figure whom Caesar links to the ignominious defeat of 107 BC by calling him ''bello Cassio dux Helvetiorum'' (i.e. "leader of the Helvetii in the Cassian campaign"). What Divico had to offer was almost a surrender, namely to have the Helvetii settle wherever Caesar wished them to, although it was combined with the threat of an open battle if Caesar should refuse. Caesar demanded hostages to be given to him and reparations to the Aedui and Allobroges. Divico responded by saying that "they were accustomed to receive, not to give hostages; a fact the Roman people could testify to", this once again being an allusion to the giving of hostages by the defeated Romans at
Agen.
Battle of Bibracte
In the cavalry battle that followed, the Helvetii prevailed over Caesar's Aedui allies under
Dumnorix' command, and continued their journey, while Caesar's army was being detained by delays in his grain supplies, caused by the Aedui on the instigations of
Dumnorix, who had married
Orgetorix' daughter. A few days later, however, near the Aeduan ''oppidum''
Bibracte, Caesar caught up with the Helvetii and faced them in a major
battle
A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force co ...
, which ended in the Helvetii's retreat and the capture of most of their baggage by the Romans.
Leaving the largest part of their supplies behind, the Helvetii covered around 60 km in four days, eventually reaching the lands of the
Lingones (the modern
Langres plateau). Caesar did not pursue them until three days after the battle, while still sending messengers to the Lingones warning them not to assist the Helvetii in any way. The Helvetii then offered their immediate surrender and agreed both to providing hostages and to giving up their weapons the next day. In the course of the night, 6000 of the
Verbigeni fled from the camp out of fear of being massacred once they were defenceless. Caesar sent riders after them and ordered those who were brought back to be "counted as enemies", which probably meant being sold into slavery.
Return of the migrants
In order for them to defend the Rhine frontier against the Germans, he then allowed the Helvetii, Tulingi and Latobrigi to return to their territories and to rebuild their homes, instructing the
Allobroges
The Allobroges (Gaulish language, Gaulish: *''Allobrogis'', 'foreigner, exiled'; ) were a Gauls, Gallic people dwelling in a large territory between the Rhône river and the Alps during the Iron Age Europe, Iron Age and the Roman period.
The Allob ...
to supply them with a sufficient supply of grain. Caesar does not mention the
Raurici, who seem to have built a new ''oppidum'' at
Basel-Münsterhügel upon their return. The
Aedui were granted their wish that the
Boii who had accompanied the Helvetii would settle on their own territory as allies in the ''oppidum''
Gorgobina. The nature of Caesar's arrangement with the Helvetii and the other tribes is not further specified by the
consul
Consul (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under the Roman Empire. The title was used in other European city-states thro ...
himself, but in his speech
Pro Balbo' of 56 BC,
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
mentions the Helvetii as one among several tribes of ''
foederati'', i.e. allied nations who were neither citizens of the Republic nor her subjects, but obliged by treaty to support the Romans with a certain number of fighting men.
Caesar's report of the numbers
According to the victor, tablets with lists in
Greek characters were found at the Helvetian camp, listing in detail all men able to bear arms with their names and giving a total number for the women, children and elderly who accompanied them. The numbers added up to a total of 263,000 Helvetii, 36,000
Tulingi, 14,000
Latobrigi, 23,000
Rauraci, and 32,000
Boii, all in all 368,000 heads, 92,000 of whom were warriors. A census of those who had returned to their homes listed 110,000 survivors, which meant that only about 30 percent of the emigrants had survived the war.
Caesar's report has been partly confirmed by excavations near Geneva and
Bibracte. However, much of his account has not yet been corroborated by archaeology, whilst his narrative must in wide parts be considered as biased and, in some points, unlikely. For a start, only one out of the fifteen Celtic ''
oppida'' in the Helvetii territory so far has yielded evidence for destruction by fire. Many other sites, for example the sanctuary at
Mormont, do not exhibit any signs of damage for the period in question, and Celtic life continued seemingly undisturbed for the rest of the 1st century BC up to the beginning of the Roman era, with an accent rather on an increase in prosperity than on a "Helvetic twilight". With the honourable status as ''foederati'' taken into account, it is hard to believe that the Helvetii ever sustained casualties quite as heavy as those given by the Roman military leader.
In general, numbers written down by ancient military authors have to be taken as gross exaggerations. What Caesar claims to have been 368,000 people is estimated by other sources to be rather around 300,000 (
Plutarch
Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...
), or 200,000 (
Appian
Appian of Alexandria (; ; ; ) was a Greek historian with Roman citizenship who prospered during the reigns of the Roman Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius.
He was born c. 95 in Alexandria. After holding the senior offices in the pr ...
); in the light of a critical analysis, even these numbers seem far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting men extremely unlikely in the view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants. Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of c. 30,000 men. The real numbers will never be determined exactly. Caesar's specifications can at least be doubted by looking at the size of the baggage train that an exodus of 368,000 people would have required: Even for the reduced numbers that Furger-Gunti uses for his calculations, the baggage train would have stretched for at least 40 km, perhaps even as far as 100 km.
In spite of the now much more balanced numerical weight we have to assume for the two opposing armies, the battle seems far less glorious a victory than Caesar presented it to be. The main body of the Helvetii withdrew from the battle at nightfall, abandoning, as it seemed, most of their wagons, which they had drawn up into a
wagon fort; they retreated northwards in a forced night march and reached the territory of the
Lingones four days after the battle. What Caesar implies to have been a desperate flight without stopping could actually have been an ordered retreat of moderate speed, covering less than 40 km a day. Caesar himself does not appear as a triumphant victor in turn, being unable to pursue the Helvetii for three days, "both on account of the wounds of the soldiers and the burial of the slain". However, it is clear that Caesar's warning to the Lingones not to supply his enemies was quite enough to make the Helvetii leaders once again offer peace. On what terms this peace was made is debatable, but as said before, the conclusion of a ''foedus'' casts some doubt on the totality of the defeat.
Questions of motive
As Caesar's account is heavily influenced by his political agenda, it is difficult to determine the actual motive of the Helvetii movement of 58 BC. One might see the movement in the light of a Celtic retreat from areas which were later to become Germanic; it can be debated whether they ever had plans to settle in the
Saintonge, as Caesar claims (Bell. Gall. 1,10.). It was certainly in the latter's personal interest to emphasise any kind of parallel between the traumatic experience of the
Cimbrian and
Teutonic incursions and the alleged threat that the Helvetii were to the Roman world. The
Tigurini's part in the destruction of
L. Cassius Longinus and his army was a welcome pretext to engage in an offensive war in Gaul whose proceeds permitted Caesar not only to fulfil his obligations to the numerous creditors he owed money to, but also to further strengthen his position within the late Republic. In this sense, even the character of
Divico, who makes his appearance in the ''Commentarii'' half a century after his victory over L. Cassius Longinus, seems more like another hackneyed argument stressing Caesar's justification to attack, than like an actual historical figure. That the victor of
Agen was still alive in 58 BC or, if yes, that he was physically still capable of undertaking such a journey at all, seems more than doubtful.
The Helvetii as Roman subjects
The Helvetii and
Rauraci most likely lost their status as ''foederati'' only six years after the battle of Bibracte, when they supported
Vercingetorix in 52 BC with 8,000 and 2,000 men, respectively. Sometime between 50 and 45 BC, the Romans founded the ''Colonia Iulia Equestris'' at the site of the Helvetian settlement ''Noviodunum'' (modern
Nyon), and around 44 BC the ''
Colonia Raurica'' on Rauracan territory. These colonies were probably established as a means of controlling the two most important military access routes between the Helvetian territory and the rest of
Gaul
Gaul () was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Roman people, Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of . Ac ...
, blocking the passage through the
Rhône
The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...
valley and
Sundgau.
In the course of
Augustus' reign, Roman dominance became more concrete. Some of the traditional Celtic oppida were now used as legionary garrisons, such as
Vindonissa or
Basilea (modern
Basel
Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle ( ), ; ; ; . is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine (at the transition from the High Rhine, High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's List of cities in Switzerland, third-most-populo ...
); others were relocated, such as the hill-fort on the Bois de Châtel, whose inhabitants founded the new "capital" of the
civitas at nearby
Aventicum. First incorporated into the Roman province of
Gallia Belgica, later into the
Germania Superior
Germania Superior ("Upper Germania") was an imperial province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of today's western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany. Important cities were Besançon ('' Vesont ...
and finally into the
Diocletian
Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia. As with other Illyri ...
province of
Maxima Sequanorum, the former territories of the Helvetii and their inhabitants were as thoroughly romanised as the rest of Gaul.
The rising of 68/69 AD
What seems to have been the last action of the Helvetii as a tribal entity happened shortly after the death of emperor
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his ...
in 68 AD. Like the other Gallic tribes, the Helvetii were organised as a ''
civitas''; they even retained their traditional grouping into four ''
pagi'' and enjoyed a certain inner autonomy, including the defence of certain strongholds by their own troops. In
the civil war which followed Nero's death, the ''civitas Helvetiorum'' supported
Galba; unaware of his death, they refused to accept the authority of his rival,
Vitellius. The
Legio XXI Rapax, stationed in
Vindonissa and favouring Vitellius, stole the pay of a Helvetian garrison, which prompted the Helvetians to intercept Vitellian messengers and detain a Roman detachment.
Aulus Caecina Alienus, a former supporter of Galba who was now at the head of a Vitellian invasion of Italy, launched a massive punitive campaign, crushing the Helvetii under their commander
Claudius Severus and routing the remnants of their forces at
Mount Vocetius, killing and enslaving thousands. The capital
Aventicum surrendered, and
Julius Alpinus, head of what was now seen as a Helvetian uprising, was executed. In spite of the extensive damage and devastations the ''civitas'' had already sustained, according to
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars.
Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
the Helvetii were saved from total annihilation owing to the pleas of one Claudius Cossus, a Helvetian envoy to Vitellius, and, as Tacitus puts it, "of well-known eloquence".
Legacy
Roman occupation in the aftermath of the
Gallic Wars had pacified the Celtic-Germanic contact zone along the Rhine. The
Suebi
file:1st century Germani.png, 300px, The approximate positions of some Germanic peoples reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 1st century. Suebian peoples in red, and other Irminones in purple.
The Suebi (also spelled Suavi, Suevi or Suebians ...
and
Marcomanni
The Marcomanni were a Germanic people who lived close to the border of the Roman Empire, north of the River Danube, and are mentioned in Roman records from approximately 60 BC until about 400 AD. They were one of the most important members of th ...
who under
Ariovistus had planned to invade Gaul were pushed back beyond the
Black Forest
The Black Forest ( ) is a large forested mountain range in the States of Germany, state of Baden-Württemberg in southwest Germany, bounded by the Rhine Valley to the west and south and close to the borders with France and Switzerland. It is th ...
, where they amalgamated into the future
Alemanni
The Alemanni or Alamanni were a confederation of Germanic peoples, Germanic tribes
*
*
*
on the Upper Rhine River during the first millennium. First mentioned by Cassius Dio in the context of the campaign of Roman emperor Caracalla of 213 CE ...
.
The Romans allowed Germanic tribes such as the
Ubii
350px, The Ubii around AD 30
The Ubii were a Germanic tribe first encountered dwelling on the east bank of the Rhine in the time of Julius Caesar, who formed an alliance with them in 55 BC in order to launch attacks across the river. They were ...
,
Triboci
In classical antiquity, the Triboci or Tribocci were a Germanic peoples, Germanic people of eastern Gaul, inhabiting much of what is now Alsace.
Name
Besides the forms Triboci and Tribocci, Schneider has the form “Triboces” in the accusative ...
,
Nemetes and
Vangiones
The Vangiones appear first in history as an ancient Germanic peoples, Germanic tribe of unknown provenance. They threw in their lot with Ariovistus in his bid of 58 BC to invade Gaul through the Doubs river valley and lost to Julius Caesar in a ba ...
to settle in the deserted areas left of the Rhine. On the right bank of the Upper Rhine, which according to the testimony of
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars.
Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...
(''Germania'' 28) had formerly also been occupied by the Helvetians, both the historical and archaeological records are sparse.
Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy (; , ; ; – 160s/170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine science, Byzant ...
(2.4.11) in the 2nd century uses the term ''Eremus Helvetiorum'' (also rendered ''Heremus Helvetiorum'') "desolation of the Helvetians" to refer to this area (largely corresponding to modern
Baden). The term was adopted by
Aegidius Tschudi in the 16th century, and remains in use in modern historiography (German: ''
Helvetier-Einöde'').
It has been proposed that the area inhabited by the Helvetians had extended beyond the Swiss plateau, far into what is now
Baden-Württemberg
Baden-Württemberg ( ; ), commonly shortened to BW or BaWü, is a states of Germany, German state () in Southwest Germany, east of the Rhine, which forms the southern part of Germany's western border with France. With more than 11.07 million i ...
, but had been displaced in the course of the
Cimbrian War
The Cimbrian or Cimbric War (113–101 BC) was fought between the Roman Republic and the Germanic peoples, Germanic and Celts, Celtic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons, Ambrones and Tigurini, who migrated from the Jutland peninsula into Roma ...
, some two generations prior to Caesar's invasion of Gaul.
The Swiss plateau was gradually romanized during the 1st to 3rd centuries.
The principal Roman settlements were the cities of
Iulia Equestris (
Nyon),
Aventicum (
Avenches),
Augusta Raurica (
Augst) and
Vindonissa (
Windisch). Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages (''
vici'') and hundreds of
villa
A villa is a type of house that was originally an ancient Roman upper class country house that provided an escape from urban life. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably. After the f ...
s.
[Ducrey, p. 83.]
In the course of Romanization, the
Celtic polytheism of the Helvetians was
syncretized with
Roman religion. The Celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts, and Roman gods acquired the names of local gods, such as ''Mars
Caturix'', ''Mercurius
Cissonius'' and ''Jupiter
Poeninus''.
A major cultic center of
Gallo-Roman religion, consisting of eight chapels or small temples, was found in
Allmendingen near
Thun. Deities worshipped at the site included
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It is also known as the "Red Planet", because of its orange-red appearance. Mars is a desert-like rocky planet with a tenuous carbon dioxide () atmosphere. At the average surface level the atmosph ...
(presumably in lieu of
Caturix) and
Rosmerta as well as
Mithras.
Although the
Gaulish language
Gaulish is an extinct Celtic language spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during the period of the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language of the Celts of Gaul (now France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerl ...
had mostly been ousted by
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
by the 3rd century, many
Celtic toponyms have survived in Switzerland. Of the ten largest present-day Swiss cities, at least six have Celtic placename etymologies,
and most major
Swiss rivers have either Celtic or
pre-Celtic names.
The order and prosperity of the ''
Pax Romana'' ended with the
Crisis of the Third Century
The Crisis of the Third Century, also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis, was a period in History of Rome, Roman history during which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressure of repeated Barbarian invasions ...
. In 260, when the
Gallic Empire briefly seceded from Rome, emperor
Gallienus withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight the usurper
Ingenuus, allowing the
Alemanni
The Alemanni or Alamanni were a confederation of Germanic peoples, Germanic tribes
*
*
*
on the Upper Rhine River during the first millennium. First mentioned by Cassius Dio in the context of the campaign of Roman emperor Caracalla of 213 CE ...
to invade the Swiss plateau. There, cities, villages and most ''villae'' were raided or sacked by marauding bands. The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to the severity of the crisis.
[Ducrey, Pierre (2006). "Die ersten Kulturen zwischen Alpen und Jura". ''Geschichte der Schweiz und der Schweizer'' (4th ed.), Schwabe, p. 101.]
The Helvetii were re-discovered as the forebears of the
Swiss
Swiss most commonly refers to:
* the adjectival form of Switzerland
* Swiss people
Swiss may also refer to: Places
* Swiss, Missouri
* Swiss, North Carolina
* Swiss, West Virginia
* Swiss, Wisconsin
Other uses
* Swiss Café, an old café located ...
in the early
historiography of Switzerland, in the late 15th to early 16th century. Their name was adopted as the
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
equivalent of the designation
''Switzer'', and the
Swiss Confederacy was given the Latin name of ''Republica Helvetiorum''. The name of the national personification of
Switzerland
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...
, ''
Helvetia'', and the country's contemporary
Neo-Latin
Neo-LatinSidwell, Keith ''Classical Latin-Medieval Latin-Neo Latin'' in ; others, throughout. (also known as New Latin and Modern Latin) is the style of written Latin used in original literary, scholarly, and scientific works, first in Italy d ...
name, ''Confoederatio Helvetica'' (abbreviated CH), are derived from this tradition.
In 2015, the star
51 Pegasi, the first
main-sequence star found to have an
exoplanet
An exoplanet or extrasolar planet is a planet outside the Solar System. The first confirmed detection of an exoplanet was in 1992 around a pulsar, and the first detection around a main-sequence star was in 1995. A different planet, first det ...
, was named Helvetios after the Helvetii as part of the
IAU's
NameExoWorlds contest.
Celtic oppida in Switzerland
The distribution of
La Tène culture
The La Tène culture (; ) was a Iron Age Europe, European Iron Age culture. It developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from about 450 BC to the Roman Republic, Roman conquest in the 1st century BC), succeeding the early Iron Age ...
burials in Switzerland indicates that the
Swiss plateau between
Lausanne
Lausanne ( , ; ; ) is the capital and largest List of towns in Switzerland, city of the Swiss French-speaking Cantons of Switzerland, canton of Vaud, in Switzerland. It is a hilly city situated on the shores of Lake Geneva, about halfway bet ...
and
Winterthur
Winterthur (; ) is a city in the canton of Zurich in northern Switzerland. With over 120,000 residents, it is the country's List of cities in Switzerland, sixth-largest city by population, as well as its ninth-largest agglomeration with about 14 ...
was relatively densely populated. Settlement centres existed in the
Aare valley between
Thun and
Bern
Bern (), or Berne (), ; ; ; . is the ''de facto'' Capital city, capital of Switzerland, referred to as the "federal city".; ; ; . According to the Swiss constitution, the Swiss Confederation intentionally has no "capital", but Bern has gov ...
, and between
Lake Zurich and the river
Reuss. The
Valais and the regions around
Bellinzona and
Lugano
Lugano ( , , ; ) is a city and municipality within the Lugano District in the canton of Ticino, Switzerland. It is the largest city in both Ticino and the Italian-speaking region of southern Switzerland. Lugano has a population () of , and an u ...
also seem to have been well-populated; however, those lay outside the Helvetian borders.
Almost all the Helvetic ''
oppida'' were built in the vicinity of the larger rivers of the Swiss midlands. Not all of them existed at the same time. For most of them, we do not have any idea as to what their Gaulish names might have been, with one or two possible exceptions.
Where a pre-Roman name is preserved, it is added in brackets. Those marked with an
asterisk
The asterisk ( ), from Late Latin , from Ancient Greek , , "little star", is a Typography, typographical symbol. It is so called because it resembles a conventional image of a star (heraldry), heraldic star.
Computer scientists and Mathematici ...
(*) were most likely occupied by neighbouring tribes (
Raurici,
Veragri, etc.) rather than the Helvetii.
* Altenburg-
Rheinau
*
Basel
Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle ( ), ; ; ; . is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine (at the transition from the High Rhine, High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's List of cities in Switzerland, third-most-populo ...
*
*
Bern
Bern (), or Berne (), ; ; ; . is the ''de facto'' Capital city, capital of Switzerland, referred to as the "federal city".; ; ; . According to the Swiss constitution, the Swiss Confederation intentionally has no "capital", but Bern has gov ...
-Engehalbinsel (possibly ''Brenodurum''
Bern, Engehalbinsel, Römerbad
)
* Bois de Châtel, Avenches
* Eppenberg
* Jensberg
* Genève (''Genava'')*
* Lausanne
Lausanne ( , ; ; ) is the capital and largest List of towns in Switzerland, city of the Swiss French-speaking Cantons of Switzerland, canton of Vaud, in Switzerland. It is a hilly city situated on the shores of Lake Geneva, about halfway bet ...
(''Lousonna'')
* Martigny
Martigny (; , ; ) is the capital city of the district of Martigny (district), Martigny, cantons of Switzerland, canton of Canton of Valais, Valais, Switzerland. It lies at an elevation of , and its population is approximately 20,000 inhabitants ( ...
(''Octodurus'')*
* Mont Chaibeuf*
* Mont Terri*
* Mont Vully
* Sermuz
* Uetliberg, Zürich
Zurich (; ) is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich. It is in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich. , the municipality had 448,664 inhabitants. The ...
* Windisch (''Vindonissa'')
Notes
Primary sources
*
Bibliography
*
*
*
* Andres Furger-Gunti: ''Die Helvetier: Kulturgeschichte eines Keltenvolkes''. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zürich 1984.
* Alexander Held: ''Die Helvetier''. Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zürich 1984.
* Felix Müller / Geneviève Lüscher: ''Die Kelten in der Schweiz''. Theiss, Stuttgart 2004. .
* Felix Staehelin: ''Die Schweiz in Römischer Zeit. 3., neu bearb. und erw. Aufl. Schwabe, Basel 1948''
* Gerold Walser: ''Bellum Helveticum: Studien zum Beginn der Caesarischen Eroberung von Gallien''. (Historia. Einzelschriften 118). Steiner, Stuttgart 1998.
* SPM IV ''Eisenzeit - Age du Fer - Età del Ferro'', Basel 1999. .
External links
Celts in Switzerland
{{Authority control
Historical Celtic peoples
Gauls
Tribes involved in the Gallic Wars
Foederati