Halldór Kiljan Laxness (; born Halldór Guðjónsson; 23 April 1902 – 8 February 1998) was an Icelandic writer and winner of the 1955 Nobel Prize in Literature. He wrote novels, poetry, newspaper articles, essays, plays, travelogues and short stories. Writers who influenced Laxness include August Strindberg,

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( ; ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating psychopathology, pathologies seen as originating fro ...

Knut Hamsun Knut Hamsun (4 August 1859 – 19 February 1952) was a Norwegian writer who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1920 Nobel Prize in Literature, 1920. Hamsun's work spans more than 70 years and shows variation with regard to conscio ...

Sinclair Lewis Harry Sinclair Lewis (February 7, 1885 – January 10, 1951) was an American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright. In 1930 Nobel Prize in Literature, 1930, he became the first author from the United States (and the first from the America ...

Upton Sinclair Upton Beall Sinclair Jr. (September 20, 1878 – November 25, 1968) was an American author, muckraker journalist, and political activist, and the 1934 California gubernatorial election, 1934 Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party ...

Bertolt Brecht Eugen Berthold Friedrich Brecht (10 February 1898 – 14 August 1956), known as Bertolt Brecht and Bert Brecht, was a German theatre practitioner, playwright, and poet. Coming of age during the Weimar Republic, he had his first successes as a p ...

, and

Ernest Hemingway Ernest Miller Hemingway ( ; July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American novelist, short-story writer and journalist. Known for an economical, understated style that influenced later 20th-century writers, he has been romanticized fo ...

Life

Early life

Halldór Guðjónsson was born in

Reykjavík Reykjavík is the Capital city, capital and largest city in Iceland. It is located in southwestern Iceland on the southern shore of Faxaflói, the Faxaflói Bay. With a latitude of 64°08′ N, the city is List of northernmost items, the worl ...

in 1902. When he was three, his family moved to the Laxnes farm in Mosfellssveit parish. He was brought up and enormously influenced by his grandmother, who "sang me ancient songs before I could talk, told me stories from heathen times and sang me cradle songs from the Catholic era". He started to read books and write stories at an early age and attended the technical school in Reykjavík from 1915 to 1916. His earliest published writings appeared in 1916 in ''Morgunblaðið'' and in the children's periodical ''Æskan.'' The same year, two letters-to-the-editor Halldór wrote also appeared in the North American-Icelandic children's newspapers ''Sólskin'', which was published in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Laxness then attended and in 1918 graduated from the Reykjavík Lyceum. By the time his first novel, ''Barn náttúrunnar'' (''Child of Nature'', 1919), was published he had already begun his travels on the European continent.

1920s

In 1922, Halldór moved into and considered joining the Abbaye Saint-Maurice et Saint-Maur in Clervaux,

Luxembourg Luxembourg, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France on the south. Its capital and most populous city, Luxembour ...

, where the monks followed the rules of Saint Benedict of Nursia. In 1923 he was baptized and confirmed in the

Catholic Church The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

, adopting the surname Laxness after the homestead on which he was raised and adding the name Kiljan (the Icelandic name of Irish martyr Saint Killian); Laxness practiced self-study, read books, and studied French,

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

theology Theology is the study of religious belief from a Religion, religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an Discipline (academia), academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itse ...

and

philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...

. He became a member of a group that prayed for reversion of the

Nordic countries The Nordic countries (also known as the Nordics or ''Norden''; ) are a geographical and cultural region in Northern Europe, as well as the Arctic Ocean, Arctic and Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic oceans. It includes the sovereign states of Denm ...

to Catholicism. Laxness wrote of his experiences in the essay ''Kaþólsk viðhorf'' (1925) and published (in fragmentary form) the novel ''Undir Helgahnúk'' (1924, revised 1967). In 1927, he published '' Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír'', a novel about a young man's conflicts with religion and identity in his quest to become "the most perfect person in the world". Icelandic critic Kristján Albertsson wrote of it:

Finally, finally, a grand novel which towers like a cliff above the flatland of contemporary Icelandic poetry and fiction! Iceland has gained a new literary giant—it is our duty to celebrate the fact with joy!

Laxness's religious period did not last long. He lived in the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

from 1927 to 1929, giving lectures on Iceland and attempting to write screenplays for Hollywood films. During this time he became attracted to

socialism Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...

axnessdid not become a socialist in America from studying manuals of socialism but from watching the starving unemployed in the parks. Laxness joined the socialist bandwagon… with a book ''Alþýðubókin'' (''The Book of the People'', 1929) of brilliant burlesque and satirical essays Beside the fundamental idea of socialism, the strong sense of Icelandic individuality is also the sustaining element in ''Alþýðubókin''. The two elements are entwined together in characteristic fashion and in their very union give the work its individual character.

In 1929 Laxness published an article critical of the U.S. in '' Heimskringla'', a Canadian newspaper. This resulted in charges against him, his detention, and the forfeiture of his passport. With the aid of

and the ACLU, the charges were dropped and Laxness returned to Iceland.

1930s

By the 1930s Laxness "had become the apostle of the younger generation" of Icelandic writers.

''Salka Valka'' (1931–32) began the great series of sociological novels, often coloured with socialist ideas, continuing almost without a break for nearly twenty years. This was probably the most brilliant period of his career, and it is the one which produced those of his works that have become most famous. But Laxness never attached himself permanently to a particular dogma.Sveinn Hoskuldsson, "Scandinavica", 1972 supplement, pp. 1–2

In addition to the two parts of ''Salka Valka'', Laxness published ''Fótatak manna'' (''Steps of Men'') in 1933, a collection of short stories, as well as other essays, notably ''Dagleið á fjöllum'' (''A Day's Journey in the Mountains'') in 1937. Laxness's next novel was ''Sjálfstætt fólk ( Independent People'' (1934 and 1935), which has been called "one of the best books of the twentieth century." When ''Salka Valka'' was published in English in 1936 a reviewer at the ''

Evening Standard The ''London Standard'', formerly the ''Evening Standard'' (1904–2024) and originally ''The Standard'' (1827–1904), is a long-established regional newspaper published weekly and distributed free newspaper, free of charge in London, Engl ...

'' wrote: "No beauty is allowed to exist as ornamentation in its own right in these pages; but the work is replete from cover to cover with the beauty of its perfection." In 1937 Laxness wrote the poem ''Maístjarnan'' (''The May Star''), which was set to music by Jón Ásgeirsson and became a socialist anthem. This was followed by the four-part novel ''Heimsljós'' (''World Light'', 1937, 1938, 1939, and 1940), which is loosely based on the life of Magnús Hjaltason Magnusson, a minor Icelandic poet of the late 19th century. It has been "consistently regarded by many critics as his most important work." Laxness also traveled to the

Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

in 1938 and wrote approvingly of the Soviet system and culture. He was present at the " Trial of the Twenty-one" and wrote about it in detail in his book ''Gerska ævintýrið'' (''The Russian Adventure''). In the late 1930s Laxness developed a unique spelling system that was closer to pronunciation than standard Icelandic. This characteristic of his writing is lost in translation.

1940s

In 1941 Laxness translated Hemingway's '' A Farewell to Arms'' into Icelandic, which caused controversy because of his use of

neologisms In linguistics, a neologism (; also known as a coinage) is any newly formed word, term, or phrase that has achieved popular or institutional recognition and is becoming accepted into mainstream language. Most definitively, a word can be considered ...

. He continued to court controversy over the next few years through the publication of new editions of several Icelandic sagas using

modern Icelandic Icelandic ( ; , ) is a North Germanic language from the Indo-European language family spoken by about 314,000 people, the vast majority of whom live in Iceland, where it is the national language. Since it is a West Scandinavian language, it ...

rather than the

Old Norse orthography The orthography of the Old Norse language was diverse, being written in both Runes, Runic and Latin alphabet, Latin alphabets, with many spelling conventions, variant letterforms, and unique letters and signs. In modern times, scholars established ...

that had become customary. Laxness and his publishing partners were taken to court after the publication of his edition of '' Hrafnkels saga'' in 1942. They were found guilty of violating a recent copyright law, but eventually acquitted when the copyright law was deemed a violation of the freedom of the press. Laxness's "epic" three-part work of historical fiction, '' Íslandsklukkan'' ('' Iceland's Bell''), was published between 1943 and 1946. It has been described as a novel of broad "geographical and political scope… expressly concerned with national identity and the role literature plays in forming it… a tale of colonial exploitation and the obdurate will of a suffering people." "Laxness’s three-volume ''Íslandsklukkan'' … is probably the most significant celandicnovel of the 1940s." In 1946 the English translation of ''Independent People'' was published as a Book of the Month Club selection in the U.S. and sold over 450,000 copies. In 1945 Halldór and his second wife, Auður Sveinsdóttir, moved into Gljúfrasteinn, a new house built in the countryside near Mosfellsbær, where they started a family. In addition to her domestic duties, Auður assumed the roles of personal secretary and business manager. In response to the establishment of a permanent U.S. military base in Keflavík, Halldór wrote the satire ''Atómstöðin'' ('' The Atom Station''), which may have contributed to a blacklisting of his novels in the U.S.

The demoralization of the occupation period is described ... nowhere as dramatically as in Halldór Kiljan Laxness' ''Atómstöðin'' (1948)... here he portrayspostwar society in Reykjavík, completely torn from its moorings by the avalanche of foreign gold.

For its examination of modern Reykjavík, many critics and readers consider ''Atómstöðin'' the exemplary "Reykjavík Novel."

1950s

In 1952 Laxness published ''Gerpla'' (''The Happy Warriors'', ''Wayward Heroes'') a novel based on the '' Fóstbræðra saga''. It deals with Vikings of around the year 1000.

As a work of art ''Gerpla'' is an unusually powerful achievement. Laxness has not transposed his subject into a modern key; he has chosen to preserve a close link to the style of the ancient sagas.

Halldór was awarded the Soviet-sponsored World Peace Council literary prize in 1952. A Swedish film adaptation of his novel '' Salka Valka'', directed by Arne Mattsson and filmed by Sven Nykvist, was released in 1954. In 1955 Laxness was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "for his vivid epic power, which has renewed the great narrative art of Iceland".

His chief literary works belong to the genre… fnarrative prose fiction. In the history of our literature Laxness is mentioned beside
Snorri Sturluson Snorri Sturluson ( ; ; 1179 – 22 September 1241) was an Icelandic historian, poet, and politician. He was elected twice as lawspeaker of the Icelandic parliament, the Althing. He is commonly thought to have authored or compiled portions of th ...
, the author of " Njals saga", and his place in world literature is among writers such as Cervantes, Zola, Tolstoy, and Hamsun… He is the most prolific and skillful essayist in Icelandic literature both old and new…

In the presentation address for the Nobel, Elias Wessén said:

He is an excellent painter of Icelandic scenery and settings. Yet this is not what he has conceived of as his chief mission. "Compassion is the source of the highest poetry. Compassion with Asta Sollilja on earth," he says in one of his best books… And a social passion underlies everything Halldór Laxness has written. His personal championship of contemporary social and political questions is always very strong, sometimes so strong that it threatens to hamper the artistic side of his work. His safeguard then is the astringent humour which enables him to see even people he dislikes in a redeeming light, and which also permits him to gaze far down into the labyrinths of the human soul.

In his acceptance speech, Laxness said:

… the moral principles y grandmotherinstilled in me: never to harm a living creature; throughout my life, to place the poor, the humble, the meek of this world above all others; never to forget those who were slighted or neglected or who had suffered injustice, because it was they who, above all others, deserved our love and respect… But if an Icelandic writer forgets his origins in the depths of the nation where the story lives; if he forgets his relationship and duty to the life that is hard-pressed, the life that my old grandmother taught me to revere in my heart and mind — then fame is of little worth; along with happiness that is gained from wealth.

Laxness grew increasingly disenchanted with the Soviet bloc after the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. In 1957 Halldór and his wife went on a world tour, stopping in New York City, Washington, DC, Chicago, Madison, Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Peking (Beijing), Bombay (Mumbai), Cairo, and Rome. "In these and other countries he was able to appear as kind of a cultural ambassador for Iceland.", Other major accomplishments in this decade were ''Brekkukotsannáll'', ('' The Fish Can Sing'', 1957), and ''Paradísarheimt'', (''Paradise Reclaimed'', 1960).

Later years

In the 1960s Laxness was very active in Icelandic theater. He wrote and produced plays, the most successful of which was ''The Pigeon Banquet'' (''Dúfnaveislan'', 1966). In 1968 Laxness published the "visionary novel" ''Kristnihald undir Jökli'' (''Under the Glacier / Christianity at the Glacier''). Laxness was awarded the Sonning Prize in 1969. In 1970 Laxness published an influential ecological essay, ''Hernaðurinn gegn landinu'' (''The War Against the Land''). In the 1970s he published what he called "essay novels": ''Innansveitarkronika'' (''A Parish Chronicle'', 1970) and ''Guðsgjafaþula'' (''A Narration of God's Gifts'', 1972). Neither has been translated into English. Laxness continued to write essays and memoirs into the 1980s. As he grew older he began to suffer from

Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease and the cause of 60–70% of cases of dementia. The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events. As the disease advances, symptoms can include problems wit ...

and eventually moved into a nursing home, where he died on 8 February 1998, at the age of 95.

Family and legacy

In 1922, Laxness met Málfríður Jónsdóttir (29 August 1896 - 7 November 2003), who gave birth to his first daughter, María, on 10 April 1923. In 1930, he married Ingibjörg Einarsdóttir (3 May 1908 - 22 January 1994), who gave birth to his son Einar on 9 August 1931. In 1940 they divorced. In 1939, he met Auður Sveinsdóttir (30 June 1918 - 29 October 2012) at Laugavatn. Auður waited for Laxness and made sacrifices so he could focus on his work. They married in 1945 and moved into their home, Gljúfrasteinn, in Mosfellsbær later that year. Auður and Halldór had two daughters: Sigríður, born 26 May 1951, and Guðný, born 23 May 1954. His daughter Guðný Halldórsdóttir is a filmmaker whose first work was the 1989 adaptation of ''Kristnihald undir jōkli'' (''Under the Glacier''). In 1999 her adaptation of Laxness's story ''Úngfrúin góða og Húsið'' ('' The Honour of the House'') was submitted for consideration for the

Academy Award The Academy Awards, commonly known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit in film. They are presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) in the United States in recognition of excellence ...

for Best Foreign Film. Guðný's son, Halldór Laxness Halldórsson, is a writer, actor, and poet. A grandchild, Auður Jónsdóttir, is an author and playwright. Gljúfrasteinn (Laxness's house, grounds, and personal effects) is now a museum operated by the government of Iceland. In the 21st century, interest in Laxness in English-speaking countries increased after several of his novels were reissued and the first English-language publications of ''Iceland's Bell'' (2003) and ''The Great Weaver from Kashmir'' (2008). In 2016 a new English-language translation of ''Gerpla'' was published as ''Wayward Heroes''. A new English-language translation of ''Salka Valka'' was released in 2022 to widespread acclaim. Halldór Guðmundsson's book ''The Islander: A Biography of Halldór Laxness'' won the Icelandic Literary Prize for best work of nonfiction in 2004. Numerous dramatic adaptations of Laxness's work have been staged in Iceland. In 2005 the Icelandic National Theatre premiered a play by Ólafur Haukur Símonarson, ''Halldór í Hollywood'' (''Halldór in Hollywood''), about Laxness's time in the United States in the 1920s. A biennial Halldór Laxness International Literary Prize is awarded at the Reykjavík International Literary Festival.

Bibliography

Novels

* 1919: ''Barn náttúrunnar'' (''Child of Nature'') * 1924: ''Undir Helgahnúk'' (''Under the Holy Mountain'') * 1927: ''Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír'' ('' The Great Weaver from Kashmir'') * 1931: ''Þú vínviður hreini'' (''O Thou Pure Vine'') – Part I of ''Salka Valka'' * 1932: ''Fuglinn í fjörunni'' (''The Bird on the Beach'') – Part II of ''Salka Valka'' * 1933: ''Úngfrúin góða og Húsið'' (''The Honour of the House''), as part of ''Fótatak manna: sjö þættir'' * 1934: ''Sjálfstætt fólk'' — Part I, ''Landnámsmaður Íslands'' (''Icelandic Pioneers''), '' Independent People'' * 1935: ''Sjálfstætt fólk'' – Part II, ''Erfiðir tímar'' (''Hard Times''), ''Independent People'' * 1937: ''Ljós heimsins'' (''The Light of the World'') – Part I of ''Heimsljós'' (''World Light'') * 1938: ''Höll sumarlandsins'' (''The Palace of the Summerland'') – Part II of ''Heimsljós'' (''World Light'') * 1939: ''Hús skáldsins'' (''The Poet's House'') – Part III of ''Heimsljós'' (''World Light'') * 1940: ''Fegurð himinsins'' (''The Beauty of the Skies'') – Part IV of ''Heimsljós'' (''World Light'') * 1943: ''Íslandsklukkan'' ''(Iceland's Bell)'' – Part I of ''Íslandsklukkan'' ('' Iceland's Bell'') * 1944: ''Hið ljósa man'' (''The Bright Maiden'') – Part II of ''Íslandsklukkan'' (''Iceland's Bell'') * 1946: ''Eldur í Kaupinhafn'' (''Fire in Copenhagen'') – Part III of ''Íslandsklukkan'' (''Iceland's Bell'') * 1948: ''Atómstöðin'' ('' The Atom Station'') * 1952: ''Gerpla'' (''The Happy Warriors'' (1958) / ''Wayward Heroes'' (2016)) * 1957: ''Brekkukotsannáll'' ('' The Fish Can Sing'') * 1960: ''Paradísarheimt'' (''Paradise Reclaimed'') * 1968: ''Kristnihald undir Jökli'' (''Under the Glacier / Christianity at the Glacier'') * 1970: ''Innansveitarkronika'' (''A Parish Chronicle'') * 1972: ''Guðsgjafaþula'' (''A Narration of God's Gifts'')

Stories

* 1923: ''Nokkrar sögur'' * 1933: ''Fótatak manna'' * 1935: ''Þórður gamli halti'' * 1942: ''Sjö töframenn'' * 1954: ''Þættir'' (collection) * 1964: ''Sjöstafakverið'' * 1981: ''Við Heygarðshornið'' * 1987: ''Sagan af brauðinu dýra'' * 1992: ''Jón í Brauðhúsum'' * 1996: ''Fugl á garðstaurnum og fleiri smásögur'' * 1999: ''Úngfrúin góða og Húsið'' * 2000: ''Smásögur'' * 2001: ''Kórvilla á Vestfjörðum og fleiri sögur''

Plays

* 1934: ''Straumrof'' * 1950: ''Snæfríður Íslandssól'' (from the novel '' Íslandsklukkan'') * 1954: ''Silfurtúnglið'' * 1961: ''Strompleikurinn'' * 1962: ''Prjónastofan Sólin'' * 1966: ''Dúfnaveislan'' * 1970: ''Úa'' (from the novel ''Kristnihald undir Jökli'') * 1972: ''Norðanstúlkan'' (from the novel '' Atómstöðin'')

Poetry

* 1925: ''Únglíngurinn í skóginum'' * 1930: ''Kvæðakver''

Travelogues and essays

* 1925: ''Kaþólsk viðhorf'' (''Catholic View'') * 1929: ''Alþýðubókin'' (''The Book of the People'') * 1933: ''Í Austurvegi'' (''In the Baltic'') * 1938: ''Gerska æfintýrið'' (''The Russian Adventure'')

Memoirs

* 1952: ''Heiman eg fór'' (subtitle: sjálfsmynd æskumanns) * 1963: ''Skáldtími'' * 1975: ''Í túninu heima'', part I * 1976: ''Úngur eg var'', part II * 1978: ''Sjömeistarasagan'', part III * 1980: ''Grikklandsárið'', part IV * 1987: ''Dagar hjá múnkum''

Translations

* 1941: ''Vopnin kvödd'' ('' A Farewell to Arms''),

* 1943: ''Kirkjan á fjallinu'' (''Kirken på bjerget''), Gunnar Gunnarsson * 1945: ''Birtingur'' (''

Candide ( , ) is a French satire written by Voltaire, a philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment, first published in 1759. The novella has been widely translated, with English versions titled ''Candide: or, All for the Best'' (1759); ''Candide: or, The ...

''),

Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778), known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' Voltaire (, ; ), was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, philosopher (''philosophe''), satirist, and historian. Famous for his wit ...

* 1966: ''Veisla í Farángrinum'' ('' A Moveable Feast''), Ernest Hemingway

Other

* 1941: ''Laxdaela Saga'', edited with preface * 1942: ''Hrafnkatla,'' edited with preface * 1945: ''Brennunjal's Saga,'' edited with afterword * 1945: ''Alexander's Saga,'' edited with preface * 1946: ''Grettis Saga'', edited with preface * 1952: ''Kvaedi og ritgerdir'' by Johann Jonsson, edited with preface

References

Sources

*Halldór Guðmundsson. 2004. Halldór Laxness. (Reykjavík: JPV)

External links

Gljúfrasteinn, the Halldór Laxness Museum website
* including the prize motivation *
Dennis Haarsager's biography

''Laxness in Translation'' website
{{DEFAULTSORT:Laxness, Halldor 1902 births 1998 deaths Halldor Laxness Icelandic essayists Icelandic satirists Roman Catholic writers Converts to Roman Catholicism from Lutheranism Halldor Laxness Nobel laureates in Literature Halldor Laxness Halldor Laxness 20th-century Icelandic translators Writers about the Soviet Union 20th-century Icelandic novelists 20th-century Roman Catholics Deaths from dementia in Iceland Deaths from Alzheimer's disease Icelandic people with family names