''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also
transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of
Jewish religious laws which is derived from the
written and
Oral Torah. Halakha is based on biblical commandments (''
mitzvot
In its primary meaning, the Hebrew word (; he, מִצְוָה, ''mīṣvā'' , plural ''mīṣvōt'' ; "commandment") refers to a commandment commanded by God to be performed as a religious duty. Jewish law () in large part consists of discus ...
''), subsequent
Talmudic and
rabbinic laws, and the customs and traditions which were compiled in the many books such as the ''
Shulchan Aruch''. ''Halakha'' is often translated as "Jewish law", although a more literal translation of it might be "the way to behave" or "the way of walking". The word is derived from the
root which means "to behave" (also "to go" or "to walk"). ''Halakha'' not only guides religious practices and beliefs, it also guides numerous aspects of day-to-day life.
Historically, in the
Jewish diaspora, ''halakha'' served many Jewish communities as an enforceable avenue of law – both
civil
Civil may refer to:
*Civic virtue, or civility
*Civil action, or lawsuit
* Civil affairs
*Civil and political rights
*Civil disobedience
*Civil engineering
*Civil (journalism), a platform for independent journalism
*Civilian, someone not a membe ...
and
religious, since no differentiation of them exists in classical Judaism. Since the Jewish Enlightenment (''
Haskalah'') and
Jewish emancipation, some have come to view the ''halakha'' as less binding in day-to-day life, because it relies on rabbinic interpretation, as opposed to the authoritative, canonical text which is recorded in the
Hebrew Bible. Under contemporary
Israeli law, certain areas of Israeli family and personal status law are under the authority of the rabbinic courts, so they are treated according to ''halakha''. Some minor differences in ''halakha'' are found among
Ashkenazi Jews,
Mizrahi Jews,
Sephardi Jews,
Yemenite,
Ethiopian and other Jewish communities which historically lived in isolation.
Etymology and terminology

The word ''halakha'' is derived from the
Hebrew root ''halakh'' – "to walk" or "to go".
Taken literally, therefore, ''halakha'' translates as "the way to walk", rather than "law". The word ''halakha'' refers to the corpus of rabbinic legal texts, or to the overall system of religious law. The term may also be related to
Akkadian Akkadian or Accadian may refer to:
* Akkadians, inhabitants of the Akkadian Empire
* Akkadian language, an extinct Eastern Semitic language
* Akkadian literature, literature in this language
* Akkadian cuneiform, early writing system
* Akkadian myt ...
, a property tax, rendered in Aramaic as , designating one or several obligations.
It may be descended from hypothetical reconstructed Proto-Semitic root
''*halak-'' meaning "to go", which also has descendants in Akkadian, Arabic, Aramaic, and Ugaritic.
''Halakha'' is often contrasted with ''
aggadah'' ("the telling"), the diverse corpus of rabbinic
exegetical
Exegesis ( ; from the Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Biblical works. In modern usage, exegesis can involve critical interpretations ...
, narrative, philosophical, mystical, and other "non-legal" texts.
At the same time, since writers of ''halakha'' may draw upon the aggadic and even mystical literature, a dynamic interchange occurs between the genres. ''Halakha'' also does not include the parts of the
Torah not related to commandments.
''Halakha'' constitutes the practical application of the
613 ''mitzvot'' ("commandments") in the Torah, as developed through discussion and debate in the classical
rabbinic literature, especially the
Mishnah and the
Talmud (the "
Oral Torah"), and as codified in the ''
Mishneh Torah'' and ''
Shulchan Aruch''. Because ''halakha'' is developed and applied by various halakhic authorities rather than one sole "official voice", different individuals and communities may well have different answers to halakhic questions. With few exceptions, controversies are not settled through authoritative structures because during the
Jewish diaspora, Jews lacked a single judicial hierarchy or appellate review process for ''halakha''.
According to some scholars, the words ''halakha'' and
sharia
Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the H ...
both mean literally "the path to follow". The
fiqh literature parallels
rabbinical law developed in the
Talmud, with fatwas being analogous to
rabbinic ''responsa''.
Commandments (mitzvot)
According to the Talmud (''Tractate Makot''), 613 ''mitzvot'' are in the Torah, 248 positive ("thou shalt") ''mitzvot'' and 365 negative ("thou shalt not") ''mitzvot'', supplemented by seven ''mitzvot''
legislated by the rabbis of antiquity. Currently, many of the 613 commandments cannot be performed until the building of the
Temple in Jerusalem and the universal resettlement of the Jewish people in
the Land of Israel by the
Messiah. According to one count, only 369 can be kept, meaning that 40% of mitzvot are not possible to perform.
Rabbinic Judaism divides laws into categories:
[Sinclair, Julian]
"D'Oraita."
''The JC''. 5 November 2008. 9 April 2019.

* The
Law of Moses
The Law of Moses ( he, תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה ), also called the Mosaic Law, primarily refers to the Torah or the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. The law revealed to Moses by God.
Terminology
The Law of Moses or Torah of Moses (Hebrew ...
which are believed to have been revealed by God to the Israelites at
biblical Mount Sinai. These laws are composed of the following:
** The
Written Torah, laws written in the
Hebrew Bible.
** The
Oral Torah, laws believed to have been transmitted orally prior to their later compilation in texts such as the Mishnah, Talmud, and rabbinic codes.
* Laws of human origin, including rabbinic decrees, interpretations, customs, etc.
This division between revealed and rabbinic commandments may influence the importance of a rule, its enforcement and the nature of its ongoing interpretation.
Halakhic authorities may disagree on which laws fall into which categories or the circumstances (if any) under which prior rabbinic rulings can be re-examined by contemporary rabbis, but all Halakhic Jews hold that both categories exist and that the first category is immutable, with exceptions only for life-saving and similar emergency circumstances.
A second classical distinction is between the Written Law, laws written in the
Hebrew Bible, and the Oral Law, laws which are believed to have been transmitted orally prior to their later compilation in texts such as the Mishnah, Talmud, and rabbinic codes.
Commandments are divided into positive and negative commands, which are treated differently in terms of divine and human punishment. Positive commandments ''require'' an action to be performed and are considered to bring the performer closer to God. Negative commandments (traditionally 365 in number) ''forbid'' a specific action, and violations create a distance from God.
A further division is made between ''chukim'' ("decrees" – laws without obvious explanation, such as ''
shatnez'', the law prohibiting wearing clothing made of mixtures of linen and wool), ''mishpatim'' ("judgements" – laws with obvious social implications) and ''eduyot'' ("testimonies" or "commemorations", such as the
Shabbat
Shabbat (, , or ; he, שַׁבָּת, Šabbāṯ, , ) or the Sabbath (), also called Shabbos (, ) by Ashkenazim, is Judaism's day of rest on the seventh day of the week—i.e., Saturday. On this day, religious Jews remember the biblical storie ...
and holidays). Through the ages, various rabbinical authorities have classified some of the 613 commandments in many ways.
A different approach divides the laws into a different set of categories:
* Laws in relation to God (''bein adam laMakom'', "between a person and the Place"), and
* Laws about relations with other people (''bein adam le-chavero'', "between a person and his friend").
Sources and process
Eras of Jewish law
*
Chazal
Chazal or Ḥazal ( he, חז״ל), an acronym for the Hebrew "Ḥakhameinu Zikhronam Liv'rakha" (, "Our Sages, may their memory be blessed"), refers to all Jewish sages of the Mishna, Tosefta and Talmud eras, spanning from the times of the fina ...
( "Our Sages, may their memory be blessed"): all Jewish sages of the
Mishna,
Tosefta and
Talmud eras ( BCE – c. 625 CE).
** The ''
Zugot'' ("pairs"), both the 200-year period (c. 170 BCE – 30 CE, "Era of the Pairs") during the
Second Temple period
The Second Temple period in Jewish history lasted approximately 600 years (516 BCE - 70 CE), during which the Second Temple existed. It started with the return to Zion and the construction of the Second Temple, while it ended with the First Jewis ...
in which the spiritual leadership was in the hands of five successions of "pairs" of religious teachers, and to each of these pairs themselves.
** The ''
Tannaim'' ("repeaters") were rabbis living primarily in
Eretz Yisrael who codified the
Oral Torah in the form of the Mishnah; 0–200 CE.
** The ''
Amoraim
''Amoraim'' (Aramaic language, Aramaic: plural or , singular ''Amora'' or ''Amoray''; "those who say" or "those who speak over the people", or "spokesmen") refers to Jewish scholars of the period from about 200 to 500 Common Era, CE, who "sai ...
'' ("sayers") lived in both Eretz Yisrael and
Babylonia
Babylonia (; Akkadian: , ''māt Akkadī'') was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria). It emerged as an Amorite-ruled state c. ...
. Their teachings and discussions were compiled into the two versions of the
Gemara
The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Yiddish Gemo(r)re; from Aramaic , from the Semitic root ג-מ-ר ''gamar'', to finish or complete) is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah w ...
; 200–500.
** The ''
Savoraim'' ("
reasoners") lived primarily in
Sassanid Babylonia due to the suppression of Judaism in the
Eastern Roman Empire under
Theodosius II; 500–650.
* The ''
Geonim'' ("greats" or "geniuses") presided over the two major Babylonian Academies of
Sura
A ''surah'' (; ar, سورة, sūrah, , ), is the equivalent of "chapter" in the Qur'an. There are 114 ''surahs'' in the Quran, each divided into '' ayats'' (verses). The chapters or ''surahs'' are of unequal length; the shortest surah ('' Al-K ...
and
Pumbedita
Pumbedita (sometimes Pumbeditha, Pumpedita, or Pumbedisa; arc, פוּמְבְּדִיתָא ''Pūmbəḏīṯāʾ'', "The Mouth of the River,") was an ancient city located near the modern-day city of Fallujah, Iraq. It is known for having hosted t ...
; 650–1038.
* The ''
Rishonim'' ("firsts") are the rabbis of the
late medieval period (c. 1038–1563), preceding the ''
Shulchan Aruch''.
* The ''
Acharonim'' ("lasts") are the rabbis from c. 1500 to the present.
The development of ''halakha'' in the period before the
Maccabees
The Maccabees (), also spelled Machabees ( he, מַכַּבִּים, or , ; la, Machabaei or ; grc, Μακκαβαῖοι, ), were a group of Jewish rebel warriors who took control of Judea, which at the time was part of the Seleucid Empire. ...
, which has been described as the formative period in the history of its development, is shrouded in obscurity. Historian
Yitzhak Baer
Yitzhak Baer ( he, יצחק בער; 20 December 1888 – 22 January 1980) was a German-Israeli historian and an expert on medieval Spanish Jewish history.
Early life
Baer was born in Halberstadt in the Prussian Province of Saxony, German Empire, ...
argued that there was little pure academic legal activity at this period and that many of the laws originating at this time were produced by a means of neighbourly good conduct rules in a similar way as carried out by Greeks in the age of
Solon. For example, the first chapter of ''
Bava Kamma'', contains a formulation of the law of
torts worded in the first person.
The boundaries of Jewish law are determined through the Halakhic process, a religious-ethical system of legal reasoning. Rabbis generally base their opinions on the primary sources of ''halakha'' as well as on precedent set by previous rabbinic opinions. The major sources and genre of ''halakha'' consulted include:
* The foundational Talmudic literature (especially the
Mishna and the
Babylonian Talmud) with commentaries;
**
Talmudic hermeneutics: the science which defines the rules and methods for the investigation and exact determination of the meaning of the Scriptures; includes also the rules by which the Halakhot are derived from and established by the written law. These may be seen as the rules by which early Jewish law was derived.
** ''
Gemara
The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Yiddish Gemo(r)re; from Aramaic , from the Semitic root ג-מ-ר ''gamar'', to finish or complete) is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah w ...
'' – the Talmudic process of elucidating the ''halakha''
* The post-Talmudic codificatory literature, such as Maimonides's
Mishneh Torah and the ''
Shulchan Aruch'' with its commentaries (see
#Codes of Jewish law below);
* Regulations and other "legislative" enactments promulgated by rabbis and communal bodies:
** ''
Gezeirah'' ("declaration"): "preventative legislation" of the rabbis, intended to prevent violations of the
commandments
Commandment may refer to:
* The Ten Commandments
* One of the 613 mitzvot of Judaism
* The Great Commandment
* The New Commandment
The New Commandment is a term used in Christianity to describe Jesus's commandment to "love one another" which, ac ...
** ''
Takkanah'' ("repair" or "regulation"): "positive legislation", practices instituted by the rabbis not based (directly) on the
commandments
Commandment may refer to:
* The Ten Commandments
* One of the 613 mitzvot of Judaism
* The Great Commandment
* The New Commandment
The New Commandment is a term used in Christianity to describe Jesus's commandment to "love one another" which, ac ...
* ''
Minhag
''Minhag'' ( he, מנהג "custom", classical pl. מנהגות, modern pl. , ''minhagim'') is an accepted tradition or group of traditions in Judaism. A related concept, ''Nusach (Jewish custom), Nusach'' (), refers to the traditional order and fo ...
'': Customs, community practices, and customary law, as well as the exemplary deeds of prominent (or local) rabbis;
* The ''she'eloth u-teshuvoth'' (
responsa
''Responsa'' (plural of Latin , 'answer') comprise a body of written decisions and rulings given by legal scholars in response to questions addressed to them. In the modern era, the term is used to describe decisions and rulings made by scholars i ...
, "questions and answers") literature.
* ''
Dina d'malchuta dina
Dina ( ar, دينا, he, דִּינָה, also spelled Dinah, Dena, Deena) is a female given name.
Women
* Dina bint Abdul-Hamid (1929–2019), Queen consort of Jordan, first wife of King Hussein
* Princess Dina Mired of Jordan (born 1965), Princ ...
'' ("the law of the king is law"): an additional aspect of ''halakha'', being the principle recognizing non-Jewish laws and non-Jewish legal jurisdiction as binding on Jewish citizens, provided that they are not contrary to a law in Judaism. This principle applies primarily in areas of commercial, civil and criminal law.
In antiquity, the ''
Sanhedrin'' functioned essentially as the Supreme Court and legislature (in the US judicial system) for Judaism, and had the power to administer binding law, including both received law and its own rabbinic decrees, on all Jews—rulings of the Sanhedrin became ''halakha''; see
Oral law. That court ceased to function in its full mode in 40 CE. Today, the authoritative application of Jewish law is left to the local rabbi, and the local rabbinical courts, with only local applicability. In branches of Judaism that follow ''halakha'', lay individuals make numerous ad-hoc decisions but are regarded as not having authority to decide certain issues definitively.
Since the days of the Sanhedrin, however, no body or authority has been generally regarded as having the authority to create universally recognized precedents. As a result, ''halakha'' has developed in a somewhat different fashion from Anglo-American legal systems with a Supreme Court able to provide universally accepted precedents. Generally, Halakhic arguments are effectively, yet unofficially, peer-reviewed. When a rabbinic ''
posek'' ("he who makes a statement", "decisor") proposes an additional interpretation of a law, that interpretation may be considered binding for the posek's questioner or immediate community. Depending on the stature of the posek and the quality of the decision, an interpretation may also be gradually accepted by other rabbis and members of other Jewish communities.
Under this system there is a tension between the relevance of earlier and later authorities in constraining Halakhic interpretation and innovation. On the one hand, there is a principle in ''halakha'' not to overrule a specific law from an earlier era, after it is accepted by the community as a law or
vow, unless supported by another, relevant earlier precedent; see list below. On the other hand, another principle recognizes the responsibility and authority of later authorities, and especially the ''posek'' handling a then-current question. In addition, the ''halakha'' embodies a wide range of principles that permit judicial discretion and deviation (Ben-Menahem).
Notwithstanding the potential for innovation, rabbis and Jewish communities differ greatly on how they make changes in ''halakha''. Notably, ''
poskim'' frequently extend the application of a law to new situations, but do not consider such applications as constituting a "change" in ''halakha''. For example, many
Orthodox rulings concerning electricity are derived from rulings concerning fire, as closing an electrical circuit may cause a spark. In contrast, Conservative ''poskim'' consider that switching on electrical equipment is physically and chemically more like turning on a water tap (which is permissible by ''halakha'') than lighting a fire (which is not permissible), and therefore permitted on Shabbat. The reformative
Judaism in some cases explicitly interprets ''halakha'' to take into account its view of contemporary society. For instance, most Conservative rabbis extend the application of certain Jewish obligations and permissible activities to women (see
below
Below may refer to:
*Earth
*Ground (disambiguation)
*Soil
*Floor
*Bottom (disambiguation)
Bottom may refer to:
Anatomy and sex
* Bottom (BDSM), the partner in a BDSM who takes the passive, receiving, or obedient role, to that of the top or ...
).
Within certain Jewish communities, formal organized bodies do exist. Within
Modern Orthodox Judaism
Modern Orthodox Judaism (also Modern Orthodox or Modern Orthodoxy) is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to synthesize Jewish values and the observance of Jewish law with the secular, modern world.
Modern Orthodoxy draws on sever ...
, there is no one committee or leader, but Modern US-based Orthodox rabbis generally agree with the views set by consensus by the leaders of the
Rabbinical Council of America. Within
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism, known as Masorti Judaism outside North America, is a Jewish religious movement which regards the authority of ''halakha'' (Jewish law) and traditions as coming primarily from its people and community through the generatio ...
, the
Rabbinical Assembly has an official
Committee on Jewish Law and Standards.
Note that ''takkanot'' (plural of ''
takkanah'') in general do not affect or restrict observance of Torah ''mitzvot''. (Sometimes ''takkanah'' refers to either ''gezeirot'' or ''takkanot''.) However, the Talmud states that in exceptional cases, the Sages had the authority to "uproot matters from the Torah". In Talmudic and classical Halakhic literature, this authority refers to the authority to prohibit some things that would otherwise be Biblically sanctioned (''shev v'al ta'aseh'', "thou shall stay seated and not do"). Rabbis may rule that a specific mitzvah from the Torah should not be performed, e. g., blowing the ''
shofar'' on Shabbat, or taking the ''
lulav and etrog'' on Shabbat. These examples of takkanot which may be executed out of caution lest some might otherwise carry the mentioned items between home and the synagogue, thus inadvertently violating a Sabbath ''
melakha
The 39 Melakhot ( he, ל״ט אבות מלאכה, '' lamed-tet avot melakhah'', "39 categories of work") are thirty-nine categories of activity which Jewish law identifies as prohibited by biblical law on Shabbat. Many of these activities are also ...
''. Another rare and limited form of takkanah involved overriding Torah prohibitions. In some cases, the Sages allowed the temporary violation of a prohibition in order to maintain the Jewish system as a whole. This was part of the basis for
Esther's relationship with
Ahasuerus (Xeres). For general usage of takkanaot in Jewish history see the article
Takkanah. For examples of this being used in Conservative Judaism, see
Conservative halakha.
Historical analysis
The antiquity of the rules can be determined only by the dates of the authorities who quote them; in general, they cannot safely be declared older than the
tanna ("repeater") to whom they are first ascribed. It is certain, however, that the seven middot ("measurements", and referring to
oodbehavior) of Hillel and the thirteen of Ishmael are earlier than the time of Hillel himself, who was the first to transmit them.
The Talmud gives no information concerning the origin of the middot, although the Geonim ("Sages") regarded them as Sinaitic (
Law given to Moses at Sinai
A law given to Moses at Sinai ( he, הלכה למשה מסיני, Halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai) refers to a halakhic law for which there is no biblical reference or source, but rather was passed down orally as a teaching originating from Moses at ...
). The Artscroll Series writes in its Overview to the book of Ezra:
"During the Mishnaitic and Talmudic periods, the Sages of Israel... took the eternal tools of exegesis and used them to reveal the secrets that had always been locked within the words of the Torah, secrets that Moses had taught Israel and that, in turn, had been transmitted orally for over a thousand years until the oral tradition began to crumble due to persecution and a lack of diligence. They did nothing new and certainly made no changes in the Torah; they merely made use of hermeneutic principles that had not been needed while the tradition of study was still at its zenith." (pg. xii-xiii)
The middot seem to have been first laid down as abstract rules by the teachers of Hillel, though they were not immediately recognized by all as valid and binding. Different schools interpreted and modified them, restricted or expanded them, in various ways.
Rabbi Akiva and
rabbi Ishmael and their scholars especially contributed to the development or establishment of these rules. "It must be borne in mind, however, that neither Hillel, Ishmael, nor
contemporary of theirs named Eliezer ben Jose sought to give a complete enumeration of the rules of interpretation current in his day, but that they omitted from their collections many rules which were then followed."
Akiva devoted his attention particularly to the grammatical and exegetical rules, while Ishmael developed the logical. The rules laid down by one school were frequently rejected by another because the principles that guided them in their respective formulations were essentially different. According to Akiva, the divine language of the Torah is distinguished from the speech of men by the fact that in the former no word or sound is superfluous.
Some scholars have observed a similarity between these rabbinic rules of interpretation and the hermeneutics of ancient Hellenistic culture. For example, Saul Lieberman argues that the names of rabbi Ishmael's ''middot'' (e. g., ''kal vahomer'', a combination of the archaic form of the word for "straw" and the word for "clay" – "straw and clay", referring to the obvious
eans of making a mud brick are Hebrew translations of Greek terms, although the methods of those ''middot'' are not Greek in origin.
Views today
Orthodox Judaism holds that ''halakha'' is the
divine law as laid out in the Torah (five books of Moses), rabbinical laws, rabbinical decrees, and customs combined. The rabbis, who made many additions and interpretations of Jewish Law, did so only in accordance with regulations they believe were given for this purpose to
Moses
Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu (Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pro ...
on
Mount Sinai, see . See
Orthodox Judaism, Beliefs about Jewish law and tradition.
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism, known as Masorti Judaism outside North America, is a Jewish religious movement which regards the authority of ''halakha'' (Jewish law) and traditions as coming primarily from its people and community through the generatio ...
holds that ''halakha'' is normative and binding, and is developed as a partnership between people and God based on Sinaitic Torah. While there are a wide variety of Conservative views, a common belief is that ''halakha'' is, and has always been, an evolving process subject to interpretation by rabbis in every time period. See
Conservative Judaism, Beliefs.
Reconstructionist Judaism
Reconstructionist Judaism is a Jewish movement that views Judaism as a progressively evolving civilization rather than a religion, based on concepts developed by Mordecai Kaplan (1881–1983). The movement originated as a semi-organized stream wi ...
holds that halakha is normative and binding, while also believing that it is an evolving concept and that the traditional halakhic system is incapable of producing a code of conduct that is meaningful for, and acceptable to, the vast majority of contemporary Jews. Reconstructionist founder
Mordecai Kaplan believed that "Jewish life
smeaningless without Jewish law.", and one of the planks of the Society for the Jewish Renascence, of which Kaplan was one of the founders, stated: "We accept the halakha, which is rooted in the Talmud, as the norm of Jewish life, availing ourselves, at the same time, of the method implicit therein to interpret and develop the body of Jewish Law in accordance with the actual conditions and spiritual needs of modern life."
Reform Judaism holds that modern views of how the Torah and rabbinic law developed imply that the body of rabbinic Jewish law is no longer normative (seen as binding) on Jews today. Those in the "traditionalist" wing believe that the ''halakha'' represents a personal starting-point, holding that each Jew is obligated to interpret the Torah, Talmud and other Jewish works for themselves, and this interpretation will create separate commandments for each person. Those in the liberal and classical wings of Reform believe that in this day and era, most Jewish religious rituals are no longer necessary, and many hold that following most Jewish laws is actually counter-productive. They propose that Judaism has entered a phase of ethical monotheism, and that the laws of Judaism are only remnants of an earlier stage of religious evolution, and need not be followed. This is considered wrong, and even
heretical, by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism.
Humanistic Jews value the Torah as a historical, political, and sociological text written by their ancestors. They do not believe "that every word of the Torah is true, or even morally correct, just because the Torah is old". The Torah is both disagreed with and questioned. Humanistic Jews believe that the entire Jewish experience, and not only the Torah, should be studied as a source for Jewish behavior and ethical values.
Jews believe that
gentiles
Gentile () is a word that usually means "someone who is not a Jew". Other groups that claim Israelite heritage, notably Mormons, sometimes use the term ''gentile'' to describe outsiders. More rarely, the term is generally used as a synonym for ...
are bound by a subset of ''halakha'' called the
Seven Laws of Noah
In Judaism, the Seven Laws of Noah ( he, שבע מצוות בני נח, ''Sheva Mitzvot B'nei Noach''), otherwise referred to as the Noahide Laws or the Noachian Laws (from the Hebrew pronunciation of "Noah"), are a set of universal moral law ...
, also referred to as the Noahide Laws. They are a set of imperatives which, according to the Talmud, were given by God to the "children of Noah" – that is, all of humanity.
Flexibility
Despite its internal rigidity, ''halakha'' has a degree of flexibility in finding solutions to modern problems that are not explicitly mentioned in the Torah. From the very beginnings of Rabbinic Judaism, halakhic inquiry allowed for a "sense of continuity between past and present, a self-evident trust that their pattern of life and belief now conformed to the sacred patterns and beliefs presented by scripture and tradition". According to an analysis by Jewish scholar Jeffrey Rubenstein of Michael Berger's book ''Rabbinic Authority'', the authority that rabbis hold "derives not from the institutional or personal authority of the sages but from a ''communal'' decision to recognize that authority, much as a community recognizes a certain judicial system to resolve its disputes and interpret its laws." Given this covenantal relationship, rabbis are charged with connecting their contemporary community with the traditions and precedents of the past.
When presented with contemporary issues, rabbis go through a halakhic process to find an answer. The classical approach has permitted new rulings regarding modern technology. For example, some of these rulings guide Jewish observers about the proper use of
electricity on the Sabbath and holidays. Often, as to the applicability of the law in any given situation, the proviso is to "consult your local rabbi or
posek". This notion lends rabbis a certain degree of local authority; however, for more complex questions the issue is passed on to higher rabbis who will then issue a ''teshuva'', which is a ''responsa'' that is binding. Indeed, rabbis will continuously issue different opinions and will constantly review each other's work so as to maintain the truest sense of ''halakha''. Overall, this process allows rabbis to maintain connection of traditional Jewish law to modern life. Of course, the degree of flexibility depends on the sect of Judaism, with Reform being the most flexible, Conservative somewhat in the middle, and Orthodox being much more stringent and rigid. Modern critics, however, have charged that with the rise of movements that challenge the "divine" authority of ''halakha'', traditional Jews have greater reluctance to change, not only the laws themselves but also other customs and habits, than traditional Rabbinical Judaism did prior to the advent of Reform in the 19th century.
Denominational approaches
Orthodox Judaism

Orthodox Jews believe that ''halakha'' is a religious system whose core represents the
revealed will of God. Although Orthodox Judaism acknowledges that rabbis have made many decisions and decrees regarding Jewish Law where the written Torah itself is nonspecific, they did so only in accordance with regulations received by
Moses
Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu (Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pro ...
on
Mount Sinai (see ). These regulations were transmitted orally until shortly after the destruction of the
Second Temple
The Second Temple (, , ), later known as Herod's Temple, was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem between and 70 CE. It replaced Solomon's Temple, which had been built at the same location in the United Kingdom of Israel before being inherited ...
. They were then recorded in the Mishnah, and explained in the Talmud and commentaries throughout history up until the present day. Orthodox Judaism believes that subsequent interpretations have been derived with the utmost accuracy and care. The most widely accepted codes of Jewish law are known as
Mishneh Torah and the ''
Shulchan Aruch''.
[Jacobs, Jill.]
The Shulchan Aruch
." ''My Jewish Learning''. 8 April 2019.
Orthodox Judaism has a range of opinions on the circumstances and extent to which change is permissible.
Haredi Jews generally hold that even ''minhagim'' (customs) must be retained, and existing precedents cannot be reconsidered.
Modern Orthodox authorities are more inclined to permit limited changes in customs and some reconsideration of precedent.
Conservative Judaism

The view held by
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism, known as Masorti Judaism outside North America, is a Jewish religious movement which regards the authority of ''halakha'' (Jewish law) and traditions as coming primarily from its people and community through the generatio ...
is that the Torah is not the word of God in a literal sense. However, the Torah is still held as mankind's record of its understanding of God's revelation, and thus still has divine authority. Therefore, ''halakha'' is still seen as binding. Conservative Jews use modern methods of historical study to learn how Jewish law has changed over time, and are, in some cases, willing to change Jewish law in the present.
A key practical difference between Conservative and Orthodox approaches is that Conservative Judaism holds that its rabbinical body's powers are not limited to reconsidering later precedents based on earlier sources, but the
Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) is empowered to override Biblical and Taanitic prohibitions by ''takkanah'' (decree) when perceived to be inconsistent with modern requirements or views of ethics. The CJLS has used this power on a number of occasions, most famously in the "driving teshuva", which says that if someone is unable to walk to any synagogue on the Sabbath, and their commitment to observance is so loose that not attending synagogue may lead them to drop it altogether, their rabbi may give them a dispensation to drive there and back; and more recently in its decision prohibiting the taking of evidence on ''
mamzer'' status on the grounds that implementing such a status is immoral. The CJLS has also held that the Talmudic concept of ''
Kavod HaBriyot'' permits lifting rabbinic decrees (as distinct from carving narrow exceptions) on grounds of human dignity, and used this principle in a December 2006 opinion lifting all rabbinic prohibitions on
homosexual
Homosexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or sexual behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions" to peop ...
conduct (the opinion held that only male-male anal sex was forbidden by the
Bible and that this remained prohibited). Conservative Judaism also made a number of changes to the
role of women in Judaism
The role of women in Judaism is determined by the Hebrew Bible, the Oral Law (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by custom, and by cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature mention various female role models, religio ...
including counting women in a
minyan
In Judaism, a ''minyan'' ( he, מניין \ מִנְיָן ''mīnyān'' , lit. (noun) ''count, number''; pl. ''mīnyānīm'' ) is the quorum of ten Jewish adults required for certain religious obligations. In more traditional streams of Jud ...
, permitting women to chant from the Torah, and ordaining women as
rabbi
A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as '' semikha'' – following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form o ...
s.
The Conservative approach to halakhic interpretation can be seen in the CJLS's acceptance of Rabbi Elie Kaplan Spitz's responsum decreeing the biblical category of ''
mamzer'' as "inoperative."
[Kaplan Spitz, Elie]
"Mamzerut."
''Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly''. EH 4.2000a. p. 586. The CJLS adopted the responsum's view that the "morality which we learn through the larger, unfolding narrative of our tradition" informs the application of Mosaic law.
The responsum cited several examples of how the rabbinic sages declined to enforce punishments explicitly mandated by Torah law. The examples include the trial of the accused adulteress (''sotah''), the "law of breaking the neck of the heifer," and the application of the death penalty for the "rebellious child." Kaplan Spitz argues that the punishment of the ''mamzer'' has been effectively inoperative for nearly two thousand years due to deliberate rabbinic inaction. Further he suggested that the rabbis have long regarded the punishment declared by the Torah as immoral, and came to the conclusion that no court should agree to hear testimony on ''mamzerut''.
Codes of Jewish law
The most important codifications of Jewish law include the following; for complementary discussion, see also
History of responsa in Judaism
The history of '' responsa'' in Judaism (Hebrew: שאלות ותשובות; Sephardic: ''She'elot Utshuvot''; Ashkenazic: ''Sheilos Utshuvos;'', usually shortened to שו"ת Shu"t ), spans a period of 1,700 years. Rabbinic responsa constitute a ...
.
* The
Mishnah, composed by
Rabbi Judah the Prince, in 200 CE, as a basic outline of the state of the Oral Law in his time. This was the framework upon which the Talmud was based; the Talmud's
dialectic
Dialectic ( grc-gre, διαλεκτική, ''dialektikḗ''; related to dialogue; german: Dialektik), also known as the dialectical method, is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing ...
analysis of the content of the Mishna (''
gemara
The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Yiddish Gemo(r)re; from Aramaic , from the Semitic root ג-מ-ר ''gamar'', to finish or complete) is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah w ...
''; completed c. 500) became the basis for all later
halakhic decisions and subsequent
codes.
*
Codifications by the
Geonim of the halakhic material in the Talmud.
** An early work, ''She'iltot'' ("Questions") by
Achai of Shabcha
Achai Gaon (also known as Ahai of Shabḥa or Aha of Shabḥa, Hebrew: רב אחא �חאימשַׁבָּחָא) was a leading scholar during the period of the Geonim, an 8th-century Talmudist of high renown. He enjoys the distinction of being ...
(c. 752) discusses over 190 ''mitzvot'' – exploring and addressing various questions on these. The ''She'iltot'' was influential on both of the following, subsequent works.
** The first legal
codex
The codex (plural codices ) was the historical ancestor of the modern book. Instead of being composed of sheets of paper, it used sheets of vellum, papyrus, or other materials. The term ''codex'' is often used for ancient manuscript books, with ...
proper, ''Halakhot Pesukot'' ("Decided Laws"), by
Yehudai Gaon (c. 760), rearranges the Talmud passages in a structure manageable to the layman. (It was written in
vernacular Aramaic, and subsequently translated into
Hebrew as ''Hilkhot Riu''.)
** ''Halakhot Gedolot'' ("Great Law Book"), by R.
Simeon Kayyara, published two generations later (but possibly written c. 743), contains extensive additional material, mainly from
Responsa
''Responsa'' (plural of Latin , 'answer') comprise a body of written decisions and rulings given by legal scholars in response to questions addressed to them. In the modern era, the term is used to describe decisions and rulings made by scholars i ...
and
Monograph
A monograph is a specialist work of writing (in contrast to reference works) or exhibition on a single subject or an aspect of a subject, often by a single author or artist, and usually on a scholarly subject.
In library cataloging, ''monograph ...
s of the Geonim, and is presented in a form that is closer to the original Talmud language and structure. (Probably since it was distributed, also, amongst the newly established
Ashkenazi
Ashkenazi Jews ( ; he, יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz, ; yi, אַשכּנזישע ייִדן, Ashkenazishe Yidn), also known as Ashkenazic Jews or ''Ashkenazim'',, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: , singu ...
communities.)
* The
Hilchot HaRif
Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi ha-Cohen (1013–1103) ( ar, إسحاق الفاسي, he, ר' יצחק אלפסי) - also known as the Alfasi or by his Hebrew acronym Rif (Rabbi Isaac al-Fasi), was a Maghrebi Talmudist and posek (decider in matters of hal ...
was written by the Rabbi
Isaac Alfasi (1013–1103); it has summations of the legal material found in the Talmud. Alfasi transcribed the Talmud's halakhic conclusions verbatim, without the surrounding deliberation; he also excluded all
aggadic (non-legal, and homiletic) matter. The ''Hilchot'' soon superseded the geonic codes, as it contained all the decisions and the laws then relevant, and additionally, served as an accessible Talmudic commentary; it has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud.
* The
Mishneh Torah by
Maimonides (1135–1204). This work encompasses the full range of Talmudic law; it is organized and reformulated in a logical system – in 14 books, 83 sections and 1000 chapters – with each ''halakha'' stated clearly. The Mishneh Torah is very influential to this day, and several later works reproduce passages verbatim. It also includes a section on
Metaphysics and
fundamental beliefs. (Some claim this section draws heavily on
Aristotelian science and metaphysics; others suggest that it is within the tradition of
Saadia Gaon.) It is the main source of practical ''halakha'' for many
Yemenite Jews – mainly
Baladi and
Dor Daim – as well as for a growing community referred to as ''
talmidei haRambam''.
* The work of ''the Rosh'', Rabbi
Asher ben Jehiel (1250?/1259?–1328), an abstract of the Talmud, concisely stating the final halakhic decision and quoting later authorities, notably Alfasi, Maimonides, and the
Tosafists. This work superseded Rabbi Alfasi's and has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud.
* The ''
Sefer Mitzvot Gadol'' (The "SeMaG") of Rabbi
Moses ben Jacob of Coucy
Rabbi Moses ben Jacob of Coucy, also known as Moses Mikkotsi ( he, משה בן יעקב מקוצי; la, Moses Kotsensis), was a French Tosafist and authority on Halakha (Jewish law). He is best known as the author of one of the earliest codific ...
(first half of the 13th century,
Coucy, northern France). "SeMaG" is organised around the 365 negative and the 248 positive commandments, separately discussing each of them according to the Talmud (in light of the commentaries of
Rashi and the
Tosafot) and the other codes existent at the time. ''
Sefer Mitzvot Katan'' ("SeMaK") by
Isaac ben Joseph of Corbeil is an abridgement of the ''SeMaG'', including additional practical ''halakha'', as well as
aggadic and
ethical material.
* "The Mordechai" – by
Mordecai ben Hillel (d.
Nuremberg 1298) – serves both as a source of analysis, as well as of decided law. Mordechai considered about 350 halakhic authorities, and was widely influential, particularly amongst the Ashkenazi and
Italian communities. Although organised around the ''Hilchot'' of ''the Rif'', it is, in fact, an independent work. It has been printed with every edition of the Talmud since 1482.

* The
Arba'ah Turim (lit. "The Four Columns"; the ''Tur'') by Rabbi
Jacob ben Asher (1270–1343,
Toledo, Spain). This work traces the ''halakha'' from the Torah text and the Talmud through the
Rishonim, with the ''Hilchot'' of Alfasi as its starting point. Ben Asher followed Maimonides's precedent in arranging his work in a topical order, however, the ''Tur'' covers only those areas of Jewish law that were in force in the author's time. The code is divided into four main sections; almost all codes since this time have followed the ''Turs arrangement of material.
**
Orach Chayim ("The Way of Life"): worship and ritual observance in the home and
synagogue
A synagogue, ', 'house of assembly', or ', "house of prayer"; Yiddish: ''shul'', Ladino: or ' (from synagogue); or ', "community". sometimes referred to as shul, and interchangeably used with the word temple, is a Jewish house of worshi ...
, through the course of the day, the weekly sabbath and the festival cycle.
**
Yoreh De'ah ("Teach Knowledge"): assorted ritual prohibitions, dietary laws and regulations concerning
menstrual impurity.
**
Even Ha'ezer ("The Rock of the Helpmate"):
marriage,
divorce and other issues in
family law.
**
Choshen Mishpat ("The Breastplate of Judgement"): The administration and
adjudication of civil law.
* The ''
Beit Yosef
A Beit (also spelled bait, ar, بيت , literally "a house") is a metrical unit of Arabic, Iranian, Urdu and Sindhi poetry. It corresponds to a line, though sometimes improperly renderered as "couplet" since each ''beit'' is divided into t ...
'' and the ''
Shulchan Aruch'' of Rabbi
Yosef Karo (1488–1575). The ''Beit Yosef'' is a huge commentary on the ''Tur'' in which Rabbi Karo traces the development of each law from the Talmud through later rabbinical literature (examining 32
authorities, beginning with the Talmud and ending with the works of Rabbi
Israel Isserlein). The ''Shulchan Aruch'' (literally "set table") is, in turn, a condensation of the ''Beit Yosef'' – stating each ruling simply; this work follows the chapter divisions of the ''Tur''. The ''Shulchan Aruch'', together with its related commentaries, is considered by many to be the most authoritative compilation of ''halakha'' since the Talmud. In writing the ''Shulchan Aruch'', Rabbi Karo based his
rulings on three authorities – Maimonides, Asher ben Jehiel (Rosh), and Isaac Alfasi (Rif); he considered ''the Mordechai'' in inconclusive cases.
Sephardic Jews, generally, refer to the ''Shulchan Aruch'' as the basis for their daily practice.
* The works of Rabbi
Moshe Isserles
). He is not to be confused with Meir Abulafia, known as "Ramah" ( he, רמ״ה, italic=no, links=no), nor with Menahem Azariah da Fano, known as "Rema MiPano" ( he, רמ״ע מפאנו, italic=no, links=no).
Rabbi Moses Isserles ( he, משה � ...
("Rema";
Kraków,
Poland, 1525 to 1572). Isserles noted that the ''Shulchan Aruch'' was based on the
Sephardic
Sephardic (or Sephardi) Jews (, ; lad, Djudíos Sefardíes), also ''Sepharadim'' , Modern Hebrew: ''Sfaradim'', Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: Səp̄āraddîm, also , ''Ye'hude Sepharad'', lit. "The Jews of Spain", es, Judíos sefardíes (or ), ...
tradition, and he created a series of
glosses to be appended to the text of the Shulkhan Aruch for cases where Sephardi and
Ashkenazi
Ashkenazi Jews ( ; he, יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz, ; yi, אַשכּנזישע ייִדן, Ashkenazishe Yidn), also known as Ashkenazic Jews or ''Ashkenazim'',, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: , singu ...
customs
Customs is an authority or agency in a country responsible for collecting tariffs and for controlling the flow of goods, including animals, transports, personal effects, and hazardous items, into and out of a country. Traditionally, customs ...
differed (based on the works of
Yaakov Moelin,
Israel Isserlein, and
Israel Bruna). The glosses are called ''ha-Mapah'' ("the Tablecloth"). His comments are now incorporated into the body of all printed editions of the ''Shulchan Aruch'', typeset in a different script; today, "Shulchan Aruch" refers to the combined work of Karo and Isserles. Isserles' ''Darkhei Moshe'' is similarly a commentary on the ''Tur'' and the ''Beit Yosef''.
* The ''Levush Malkhut'' ("Levush") of Rabbi
Mordecai Yoffe (c. 1530–1612). A ten-volume work, five discussing ''halakha'' at a level "midway between the two extremes: the lengthy ''Beit Yosef'' of Karo on the one hand, and on the other Karo's ''Shulchan Aruch'' together with the ''Mappah'' of Isserles, which is too brief", that particularly stresses the
customs and practices of the Jews of Eastern Europe. The Levush was exceptional among the codes, in that it treated certain ''Halakhot'' from a Kabbalistic standpoint.
* The ''
Shulchan Aruch HaRav
The ''Shulchan Aruch HaRav'' ( he, שולחן ערוך הרב, , Shulchan Aruch of the Rabbi; also romanized ''Shulkhan Arukh HaRav'') is especially a record of prevailing halakha by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (1745–1812), known during his l ...
'' of Rabbi
Shneur Zalman of Liadi (c. 1800) was an attempt to re-codify the law as it stood at that time – incorporating
commentaries on the ''Shulchan Aruch'', and
subsequent responsa – and thus stating the
decided ''halakha'', as well as the underlying reasoning. The work was written partly so that laymen would be able to study Jewish law. Unfortunately, most of the work was lost in a fire prior to publication. It is the basis of practice for
Chabad-Lubavitch
Chabad, also known as Lubavitch, Habad and Chabad-Lubavitch (), is an Orthodox Jewish Hasidic dynasty. Chabad is one of the world's best-known Hasidic movements, particularly for its outreach activities. It is one of the largest Hasidic group ...
and other
Hasidic groups and is quoted as authoritative by many subsequent works, Hasidic and non-Hasidic alike.
* Works structured directly on the ''Shulchan Aruch'', providing analysis in light of
Acharonic material and codes:
** The
Mishnah Berurah
The ''Mishnah Berurah'' ( he, משנה ברורה "Clear Teaching") is a work of ''halakha'' (Jewish law) by Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan (Poland, 1838–1933, also known as ''Chofetz Chaim''). It is a commentary on ''Orach Chayim'', the first section ...
of Rabbi
Yisroel Meir ha-Kohen, (the "Chofetz Chaim", Poland, 1838–1933) is a commentary on the "Orach Chayim" section of the ''Shulchan Aruch'', discussing the application of each ''halakha'' in light of all subsequent
Acharonic decisions. It has become the authoritative halakhic guide for much of
Orthodox Ashkenazic Jewry in the postwar period.
**
Aruch HaShulchan by Rabbi
Yechiel Michel Epstein (1829–1888) is a scholarly analysis of ''halakha'' through the perspective of the major Rishonim. The work follows the structure of the ''Tur'' and the ''Shulchan Aruch''; rules dealing with vows, agriculture, and ritual purity, are discussed in a second work known as ''
Aruch HaShulchan he'Atid''.
**
Kaf HaChaim on
Orach Chayim and parts of
Yoreh De'ah, by the Sephardi sage
Yaakov Chaim Sofer (
Baghdad and
Jerusalem, 1870–1939) is similar in scope, authority and approach to the Mishnah Berurah. This work also surveys the views of many kabbalistic sages (particularly
Isaac Luria), when these impact the Halakha.
**
Yalkut Yosef, by Rabbi
Yitzhak Yosef, is a voluminous, widely cited and contemporary work of ''halakha'', based on the rulings of Rabbi
Ovadia Yosef (1920 - 2013).
*
Layman-oriented works of ''halakha'':
** Thesouro dos Dinim ("Treasury of religious rules") by
Menasseh Ben Israel (1604-1657) is a reconstituted version of the Shulkhan Arukh, written in Portuguese with the explicit purpose of helping ''conversos'' from Iberia reintergrate into halakhic Judaism.
**The ''
Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' of Rabbi
Shlomo Ganzfried (
Hungary 1804–1886), a "digest", covering applicable Halakha from all four sections of ''Shulchan Aruch'', and reflecting the very strict Hungarian customs of the 19th century. It became immensely popular after its publication due to its simplicity, and is still popular in
Orthodox Judaism as a framework for study, if not always for practice. This work is not considered binding in the same way as the Mishneh Torah or ''Shulchan Aruch''.
**
Chayei Adam and
Chochmat Adam Avraham Danzig (ben Yehiel Michael, 1748—1820; אברהם דנציג) was a rabbi, ''posek'' (legal decisor) and codifier, best known as the author of the works of Jewish law called ''Chayei Adam'' and ''Chochmat Adam''. He is sometimes referred ...
by
Avraham Danzig (Poland, 1748–1820) are similar Ashkenazi works; the first covers ''Orach Chaim'', the second in large ''Yoreh De'ah'', as well as laws from ''Even Ha'ezer'' and ''Choshen Mishpat'' pertinent to everyday life.
** The
Ben Ish Chai by
Yosef Chaim (
Baghdad, 1832–1909) is a collection of the laws on everyday life – parallel in scope to the ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' – interspersed with mystical insights and customs, addressed to the masses and arranged by the weekly
Torah portion
It is a custom among religious Jewish communities for a weekly Torah portion to be read during Jewish prayer services on Monday, Thursday, and Saturday. The full name, ''Parashat HaShavua'' ( he, פָּרָשַׁת הַשָּׁבוּעַ), is po ...
. Its wide circulation and coverage has seen it become a standard reference work in Sephardi Halakha.
*Contemporary "series":
**
Peninei Halakha by Rabbi
Eliezer Melamed. 15 volumes thus far, covering a wide range of subjects, from Shabbat to organ donations, and in addition to clearly posing the practical law – reflecting the customs of various communities – also discusses the spiritual foundations of the Halakhot. It is widely studied in the
Religious Zionist
Religious Zionism ( he, צִיּוֹנוּת דָּתִית, translit. ''Tziyonut Datit'') is an ideology that combines Zionism and Orthodox Judaism. Its adherents are also referred to as ''Dati Leumi'' ( "National Religious"), and in Israel, the ...
community.
**
''Tzurba M’Rabanan'' by Rabbi
Benzion Algazi. Six volumes covering 300 topics
Tzurba Learning-Schedule
, mizrachi.org from all areas of the ''Shulchan Aruch'', "from the Talmudic source through modern-day halachic application", similarly studied in the Religious Zionist community (and outside Israel, through Mizrachi in numerous Modern Orthodox communities; 15 bilingual translated volumes).
** ''Nitei Gavriel'' by Rabbi Gavriel Zinner. 30 volumes on the entire spectrum of topics in ''halachah'', known for addressing situations not commonly brought in other works, and for delineating the varying approaches amongst the ''Hasidic'' branches; for both reasons they are often reprinted.
* ''Temimei Haderech'' ("A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice") by Rabbi Isaac Klein Isaac Klein (September 5, 1905 – January 23, 1979) was a prominent rabbi and halakhic authority within Conservative Judaism.
Personal life, education, and career
Klein was born in the small village of Várpalánka, today part of Mukachevo, i ...
with contributions from the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly. This scholarly work is based on the previous traditional law codes, but written from a Conservative Jewish point of view, and not accepted among Orthodox Jews.
See also
* Antinomianism
Antinomianism (Ancient Greek: ἀντί 'anti''"against" and νόμος 'nomos''"law") is any view which rejects laws or legalism and argues against moral, religious or social norms (Latin: mores), or is at least considered to do so. The term ha ...
* Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael
* Jewish ethics
Jewish ethics is the ethics of the Jewish religion or the Jewish people. A type of normative ethics, Jewish ethics may involve issues in Jewish law as well as non-legal issues, and may involve the convergence of Judaism and the Western philosoph ...
* Jewish medical ethics
* Mishpat Ivri
''Mishpat Ivri'' (Hebrew: משפט עברי, "Jewish/Hebrew law/jurisprudence") are the aspects of ''halakha'' ("traditional Jewish law") that are relevant to non-religious or secular law. In addition, the term refers to an academic approach to t ...
* Se'if katan
* Sharia
Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the H ...
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
* J. David Bleich Judah David Bleich (born August 24, 1936 in Tarrytown, New York) is an authority on Jewish law and ethics, including Jewish medical ethics. He is a professor of Talmud ( rosh yeshiva) at the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, an affiliate o ...
, ''Contemporary Halakhic Problems'' (5 vols), Ktav ; Feldheim
* Menachem Elon, ''Ha-Mishpat ha-Ivri'' (trans. ''Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles'' ); Jewish Publication Society
* Jacob Katz, ''Divine Law in Human Hands – Case Studies in Halakhic Flexibility'', Magnes Press.
* Moshe Koppel, "Meta-Halakhah: Logic, Intuition, and the Unfolding of Jewish Law",
* Mendell Lewittes, ''Jewish Law: An Introduction'', Jason Aronson.
* Daniel Pollack ed., ''Contrasts in American and Jewish Law'', Ktav.
* Emanuel Quint, ''A Restatement of Rabbinic Civil Law'' (11 vols), Gefen Publishing. ,
* Emanuel Quint, ''Jewish Jurisprudence: Its Sources & Modern Applications '', Taylor and Francis.
* Steven H. Resnicoff, ''Understanding Jewish Law'', LexisNexis, 2012.
* Joel Roth, ''Halakhic Process: A Systemic Analysis'', Jewish Theological Seminary.
* Joseph Soloveitchik
Joseph Ber Soloveitchik ( he, יוסף דב הלוי סולובייצ׳יק ''Yosef Dov ha-Levi Soloveychik''; February 27, 1903 – April 9, 1993) was a major American Orthodox rabbi, Talmudist, and modern Jewish philosopher. He was a scion o ...
, ''Halakhic Man'', Jewish Publication Society trans. Lawrence Kaplan.
*
*
External links
Full-text resources of major halakhic works
* ''Mishneh Torah''
*: Hebrew
mechon-mamre.org
wikisource
*: Translation
*''Arba'ah Turim''
*: Hebrew
wikisource
*''Shulchan Aruch''
*: Hebrew:
wikisource
*: Translation: wikisource (incomplete)
shulchanarach.com
(incomplete)
*''Shulchan Aruch HaRav''
*: Hebrew
wikisource
chabadlibrary.org
Shulchanaruchharav.com
* ''Aruch HaShulchan''
*: Hebrew
wikisource
* ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch''
*: Hebrew
www.kitzur.net
wikisource
*: Translation
(100% complete)
torah.org
(incomplete)
* ''Ben Ish Chai''
*: Hebrew
wikisource
* ''Kaf HaChaim''
*: Hebrew
hebrewbooks.org
(volume 1; others available vi
search on site
* ''Mishnah Berurah''
*: Hebrew
wikisource
mishnaberura.com
(With .mp3
MP3 (formally MPEG-1 Audio Layer III or MPEG-2 Audio Layer III) is a coding format for digital audio developed largely by the Fraunhofer Society in Germany, with support from other digital scientists in the United States and elsewhere. Orig ...
and .wma
Advanced Systems Format (formerly Advanced Streaming Format, Active Streaming Format) is Microsoft's proprietary digital audio/digital video container format, especially meant for streaming media. ASF is part of the Media Foundation framework ...
files)
hebrewbooks.org
*: Translation
* ''Chayei Adam''
*: Hebrew
daat.ac.il
* ''Chochmat Adam'':
*: Hebrew
daat.ac.il
* ''Peninei Halakha'':
*: Hebrew
ph.yhb.org.il
*: Translation
ph.yhb.org.il/en
* ''Yalkut Yosef''
*: Hebrew
yalkut.info
* ''A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice'':
*:
* ''A Halacha Wiki''
*
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