The Bronze Age is a period in the

Prehistoric Romania The Romanian state was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence ...

n timeline and is sub-divided into

Early Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...

(–2200 BC),

Middle Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...

(–1600/1500 BC), and

Late Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...

(/1500–1100 BC).Cristian Ștefan-''Epoca Bronzului'', page 1

Periodization

Several

Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...

chronologies have been applied to the Romanian area. An example would be the Periodization of Paul Reinecke for the Central European space, which split the Bronze Age into four phases (A, B, C and D) based upon the associations among the found

bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloid ...

objects.

Features

During the Bronze Age, there were some important developments from the

Chalcolithic The Chalcolithic ( ) (also called the Copper Age and Eneolithic) was an archaeological period characterized by the increasing use of smelted copper. It followed the Neolithic and preceded the Bronze Age. It occurred at different periods in di ...

, with significant improvements in the

economy An economy is an area of the Production (economics), production, Distribution (economics), distribution and trade, as well as Consumption (economics), consumption of Goods (economics), goods and Service (economics), services. In general, it is ...

. The local bronze-aged economy was based on rearing livestock (sheep, goats and pigs). The

Wietenberg culture The Wietenberg culture was a Bronze Age Europe, Middle Bronze Age archeological culture in central Romania (Prehistory of Transylvania, Transylvania) that roughly dates to 2200–1600/1500 BCE. Representing a local variant of Usatove culture, ...

reared large cattle and horses for both transportation and food. At this time, the artistic output also significantly increased, for example the Gârla Mare culture who created intricate clay statuettes. In the Early Bronze Age (–2200 BC), we see the archaeological evidence of various cultures developing, including the Baden-Coţofeni culture, the Cernavodă III-Belleraz culture, the Glina-Schneckenberg culture and the Verbicioara culture. Common occupations were

agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...

, mining, and

animal husbandry Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, animal fiber, fibre, milk, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, management, production, nutrition, selective breeding, and the raising ...

. Houses were rectangular and medium-sized. The last period of the Early Bronze Age produced a broad range of ornaments ( loop rings,

bracelets A bracelet is an article of jewellery that is worn around the wrist. Bracelets may serve different uses, such as being worn as an ornament. When worn as ornaments, bracelets may have a supportive function to hold other items of decoration, ...

necklaces A necklace is an article of jewellery that is worn around the neck. Necklaces may have been one of the earliest types of adornment worn by humans. They often serve Ceremony, ceremonial, Religion, religious, magic (illusion), magical, or Funerar ...

pendants A pendant is a loose-hanging piece of jewellery, generally attached by a small loop to a necklace, which may be known as a "pendant necklace". A pendant earring is an earring with a piece hanging down. Its name stems from the Latin word ' ...

comprising

copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...

gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...

, and

silver Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...

and particularly

). Verbicioara culture was identified in 1949 by the eponymous resort excavations. Regarding burial customs, it was considered the beginning of the burial of the dead. In the Middle Bronze Age (–1600/1500 BC), the population of

Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...

and neighboring countries was demarcated by the appearance of several major cultures. Some that stand out include the Otomani culture (seen also in

Slovakia Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the west, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's m ...

(seen in

Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...

), Mureş culture, and Gârla Mare culture (from which impressive clay figurines and statuettes have been found).

Religion

The Bronze Age introduced solar, or Uranian, cults. Some ornaments, considered to be solar symbols, were frequently pictured on

ceramic A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant, and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware, porcela ...

or metal parts:

concentric circles In geometry, two or more objects are said to be ''concentric'' when they share the same center. Any pair of (possibly unalike) objects with well-defined centers can be concentric, including circles, spheres, regular polygons, regular polyhe ...

, circles accompanied by rays, and the

swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍, ) is a symbol used in various Eurasian religions and cultures, as well as a few Indigenous peoples of Africa, African and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, American cultures. In the Western world, it is widely rec ...

Cremation Cremation is a method of Disposal of human corpses, final disposition of a corpse through Combustion, burning. Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India, Nepal, and ...

is considered to be connected to these cults. In the Romanian territory, there are three known bronze-aged sanctuaries:

Sălacea Sălacea () is a Commune in Romania, commune in Bihor County, Crișana, Romania with a population of 3,036. It is composed of two villages, Otomani (''Ottomány'') and Sălacea. The Otomani culture, a local Bronze Age in Romania, Bronze Age culture ...

Bihor County Bihor County (, ) is a county (județ) in western Romania. With a total area of , Bihor is Romania's 6th largest county geographically and the main county in the historical region of Crișana. Its capital city is Oradea (Nagyvárad). Toponymy ...

( Ottomány culture, phase II). The only cultures of this area well represented in this regard are the Gârla Mare Zuto Brdo culture and the Bijelo Szeremle Brdo-Dalj culture (also present in

Hungary Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning much of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and ...

and

Croatia Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herze ...

). About 340 pieces were found in the area of the two cultures, of which 244 are in the Gârla Mare area. Clay miniature

axe An axe (; sometimes spelled ax in American English; American and British English spelling differences#Miscellaneous spelling differences, see spelling differences) is an implement that has been used for thousands of years to shape, split, a ...

s (axes, hammers or double axes) belonging to this period have been found.

Labrys ''Labrys'' () is, according to Plutarch (''Quaestiones Graecae'' 2.302a), the Lydian language, Lydian word for the Axe#Components, double-bitted axe. In Greek it was called (''pélekys''). The plural of ''labrys'' is ''labryes'' (). Etymology ...

double-axes are frequently found in the

Cretan Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...

and

Mycenae Mycenae ( ; ; or , ''Mykē̂nai'' or ''Mykḗnē'') is an archaeological site near Mykines, Greece, Mykines in Argolis, north-eastern Peloponnese, Greece. It is located about south-west of Athens; north of Argos, Peloponnese, Argos; and sou ...

an worlds, where they occur most often in complex

ritual A ritual is a repeated, structured sequence of actions or behaviors that alters the internal or external state of an individual, group, or environment, regardless of conscious understanding, emotional context, or symbolic meaning. Traditionally ...

s and tombs (for example the ''Tomb of double ax of

Knossos Knossos (; , ; Linear B: ''Ko-no-so'') is a Bronze Age archaeological site in Crete. The site was a major centre of the Minoan civilization and is known for its association with the Greek myth of Theseus and the minotaur. It is located on th ...

''). In the

an context, the labrys has a wide range of sizes, from miniature forms to giant forms that measure 1.20 meters. However, the labrys site is frequently associated with the moon and can be a symbol of a

goddess A goddess is a female deity. In some faiths, a sacred female figure holds a central place in religious prayer and worship. For example, Shaktism (one of the three major Hinduism, Hindu sects), holds that the ultimate deity, the source of all re ...

of vegetation, the forerunner of

Demeter In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Demeter (; Attic Greek, Attic: ''Dēmḗtēr'' ; Doric Greek, Doric: ''Dāmā́tēr'') is the Twelve Olympians, Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over cro ...

, who, on Mycenaean seals, is found under a tree. The goddess has an ax in her hand and receives as gifts

poppies Poppies can refer to: *Poppy, a flowering plant *The Poppies (disambiguation) - multiple uses *''Poppies (film)'' - Children's BBC remembrance animation *Poppies (Mary Oliver poem), ''Poppies'' (poem) - a poem by Mary Oliver *"Poppies", a song by P ...

and fruits.

Gallery

File:Diadema d'oro.jpg File:Età del ferro iniziale, tesoro di hinova, bracciale e frammenti vari, XII sec. ac..JPG File:Età del ferro iniziale, tesoro di hinova, perle d'oro ottaedriche, XII sec. ac. 02.JPG File:Spoked wheel from Arokalja.jpg File:Urnenveld helm.jpg File:Remetea mare situla eia mus banat.jpg File:Orastie Celtic cauldron.JPG File:Lapus vessel lb 1 mnir.jpg File:Lapus Group pottery 1.jpg File:Gava culture pottery, Teleac hillfort, Romania.jpg File:Sword hilt Dacia (Covoru, Brasov).jpg File:Swords Bronze Age Dacia.jpg File:Sarasau hoard lb mnir.jpg, Sarasau hoard 1300-1200 BC File:Golden coils Prehistoric Maramures (Dacia).jpg, Sarasau hoard 1300-1200 BC File:Wietenberg gold bracelet 1.jpg File:Carna figurine lb mnir.jpg File:Romania, possibly Cirna, Middle Bronze Age - Large Bowl - 1993.229 - Cleveland Museum of Art.jpg File:Alba Iulia National Museum of the Union 2011 - Late Bronze Age Vessels and Bronze Objects.JPG File:Cornesti-Iacuri.jpg File:Età del bronzo, diademi in oro da galesu, 1400-1200 ac. 03.JPG File:Età del bronzo, punta di lancia o pugnale d'oro, XVII sec. ac. 05.JPG File:Età del bronzo, punta di pugnale d'oro, da macin, XVII-XVI sec. ac..JPG File:Età del bronzo, punta di lancia o pugnale d'oro, XVII sec. ac. 02.JPG File:Tesoro di sacosu mare, braccialetto con voluta, XIII-XII sec. ac. 02.JPG File:Wietenberg culture axes at National Museum of Transylvanian History 2007.jpg File:Alba Iulia National Museum of the Union 2011 - Pottery, Bone and Bronze Artefacts of the Wietenberg Culture.JPG File:Decorative motifs bracelets Pipea Biia and Karasz Dacia.jpg File:Bronze sheet belt (Dacia).JPG File:Età del bronzo, parure da sarata monteoru, xvi-xiv sec. ac..JPG File:Età del bronzo finale-inizio età del ferro, vaso d'oro da biia, XIII-XII sec. ac..JPG File:Età del bronzo, tesoro di smig, parure, XVII-XVI sec. ac..JPG File:Età del bronzo, tesoro di sacuieni, disco-falera, 1500-1400 a.c..JPG

Notes

References

* Cristian Ștefan - ''Epoca Bronzului'' * Ioan Aurel-Pop, Ioan Bolovan, coordinatings - ''Istoria ilustrată a României''

External links

* https://web.archive.org/web/20110913223325/http://prehistoire.e-monsite.com/rubrique%2Cepoca-bronzului-ii%2C1112106.html * https://web.archive.org/web/20120317115249/http://www.archaeology.ro/imc_verb.htm * https://web.archive.org/web/20110927235724/http://www.archaeology.ro/imc_mont.htm {{DEFAULTSORT:Bronze Age In Romania Bronze Age Europe by country Prehistory of Romania Archaeology of Romania