Gunugus or Gunugu (, ) was a

Berber Berber or Berbers may refer to: Ethnic group * Berbers, an ethnic group native to Northern Africa * Berber languages, a family of Afro-Asiatic languages Places * Berber, Sudan, a town on the Nile People with the surname * Ady Berber (1913–196 ...

and

Carthaginian The term Carthaginian ( ) usually refers to the civilisation of ancient Carthage. It may also refer to: * Punic people, the Semitic-speaking people of Carthage * Punic language The Punic language, also called Phoenicio-Punic or Carthaginian, i ...

town in northwest

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...

antiquity Antiquity or Antiquities may refer to: Historical objects or periods Artifacts *Antiquities, objects or artifacts surviving from ancient cultures Eras Any period before the European Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries) but still within the histo ...

. It passed into

Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of Roman civilization *Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...

control during the

Punic Wars The Punic Wars were a series of wars fought between the Roman Republic and the Ancient Carthage, Carthaginian Empire during the period 264 to 146BC. Three such wars took place, involving a total of forty-three years of warfare on both land and ...

and was the site of a colony of veteran soldiers. It survived the

Vandals The Vandals were a Germanic people who were first reported in the written records as inhabitants of what is now Poland, during the period of the Roman Empire. Much later, in the fifth century, a group of Vandals led by kings established Vand ...

and Byzantines but was destroyed during the

Muslim invasion Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraham (or ''Allah'') as it ...

of the area.

Location

Gunugus has been tentativelybut not certainlyidentified with the ruins at Sidi Brahim de Gouraya on the Mediterranean coast near

Gouraya Gouraya is a town and commune in Tipaza Province in northern Algeria Algeria, officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to Algeria–Tunisia border, the nort ...

Algeria Algeria, officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to Algeria–Tunisia border, the northeast by Tunisia; to Algeria–Libya border, the east by Libya; to Alger ...

History

Gunugus was a

and

town from around 550BC.''Barrington Atlas'', 2000, pl. 30 C3. It may have also been the site of a

Greek colony Greek colonisation refers to the expansion of Archaic Greeks, particularly during the 8th–6th centuries BC, across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. The Archaic expansion differed from the Iron Age migrations of the Greek Dark Ages ...

at some point After the

, Gunugus was the site of a

Roman colony A Roman (: ) was originally a settlement of Roman citizens, establishing a Roman outpost in federated or conquered territory, for the purpose of securing it. Eventually, however, the term came to denote the highest status of a Roman city. It ...

established by

Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...

. It was administered as part of the

province A province is an administrative division within a country or sovereign state, state. The term derives from the ancient Roman , which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire, Roman Empire's territorial possessions ou ...

of Caesarian Mauretania. The local

Berbers Berbers, or the Berber peoples, also known as Amazigh or Imazighen, are a diverse grouping of distinct ethnic groups indigenous to North Africa who predate the arrival of Arab migrations to the Maghreb, Arabs in the Maghreb. Their main connec ...

made up a large part of the settlement as well. Gunugus existed through the

Vandal Kingdom The Vandal Kingdom () or Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans () was a confederation of Vandals and Alans, which was a barbarian kingdoms, barbarian kingdom established under Gaiseric, a Vandals, Vandalic warlord. It ruled parts of North Africa and th ...

and the

Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...

reconquest of Africa. It was destroyed around AD640.

Bishopric

The town was also the

seat A seat is a place to sit. The term may encompass additional features, such as back, armrest, head restraint but may also refer to concentrations of power in a wider sense (i.e " seat (legal entity)"). See disambiguation. Types of seat The ...

of an ancient

Roman Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...

bishopric In church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop. History In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associate ...

. The only known bishop of this diocese is Ausilius, who took part in the synod assembled in Carthage in 484 by the

Vandal The Vandals were a Germanic people who were first reported in the written records as inhabitants of what is now Poland, during the period of the Roman Empire. Much later, in the fifth century, a group of Vandals led by kings established Vandal ...

King Huneric, after which Ausilius was exiled. Today Gunugo Diocese survives as a

titular bishop A titular bishop in various churches is a bishop who is not in charge of a diocese. By definition, a bishop is an "overseer" of a community of the faithful, so when a priest is ordained a bishop, the tradition of the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox an ...

ric of the Roman Catholic Church and the current bishop is

Sylvester David Sylvester or Silvester is a name derived from the Latin adjective ''silvestris'' meaning "wooded" or "wild", which derives from the noun ''silva'' meaning "woodland". Classical Latin spells this with ''i''. In Classical Latin, ''y'' represented a ...

, of

Cape Town Cape Town is the legislature, legislative capital city, capital of South Africa. It is the country's oldest city and the seat of the Parliament of South Africa. Cape Town is the country's List of municipalities in South Africa, second-largest ...

Antiquities of Gunugu

Roman era

Gunugu, on the Algerian coast near Gouraya, is significant as a former Roman settlement. Founded by Emperor Augustus, Gunugu was originally known as a small town for veterans. Despite this imperial backing, Gunugu did not experience significant growth under Roman rule. Its proximity to Caesarea, the provincial capital, probably limited its development. The Roman town was much larger. Outside the ramparts, we still come across cisterns, ashlars and, to the south-east, a few shafts and soft, crude capitals in the decadent Ionic order, which seem to have belonged originally to a Christian church or chapel from around the 5th century: at this time, Gunugu was a bishopric. Quarries were exploited at the end of the promontory that bears the necropolis described later in this text.

Medieval period

Over time, Gunugu underwent changes in government and name, eventually becoming known as Brechk under Muslim rule. However, it remained a focus of regional conflict, as evidenced by its capture by Roger II of Sicily in 1144. In the late 15th century, Gunugu saw an influx of refugees, mainly Moors fleeing from Andalusia. This demographic change gave a temporary boost to the city's economy and culture. Industries such as textile production flourished, as did agriculture in the surrounding fertile lands. In addition, Gunugu became known for its corsairs who operated along the North African coast. This period of prosperity was short-lived, however, as the city fell to the onslaught of the Knights of St Stephen in 1610, leading to its eventual decline.

Archaeological finds

The remnants of Gunugu's ancient past are scattered across the landscape, bearing witness to its rich history. Both Roman and Berber influences can be seen among the ruins, with traces of pottery, masonry and infrastructure. The sanctuary of Sidi Brahim, built from ancient materials, is particularly noteworthy, as are the remains of Roman reservoirs and an aqueduct. Despite the city's eventual decline, these archaeological remains offer a glimpse of its former grandeur and cultural heritage.

Necropolises

Gunugu boasts several ancient burial grounds that shed light on the various funerary practices prevalent in the region. The necropolises reveal a mixture of Phoenician and indigenous burial customs, with tombs carved into tufa rock. Some tombs have adjacent pits, suggesting communal burial practices. The presence of mixed bone remains indicates a complex interplay of cremation and non-cremation burial rites, reflecting the diverse cultural influences of the city's inhabitants.

Funerary practices

Burial rites at Gunugu encompassed a range of practices reflecting the city's multicultural population. Grave goods were commonly placed alongside the deceased, reflecting the belief in an afterlife and the continuation of material existence after death. Ceramic vessels, both imported from Italy and locally made, were common burial offerings, underlining Gunugu's role as a hub of Mediterranean trade and commerce. The presence of cremation remains alongside traditional burials suggests cultural exchange and adaptation within the city's diverse community. In most tombs, the remains of the deceased were simply laid on the floor, which had been lined with a bed of sand. In others, one or more benches, flat or hollowed with a more or less deep trough, had been created. The tomb depicted herein features two raised-edged layers, which, instead of taking the form of a basin, are open on the side of the bottom. Quite often, the shaft provides access to a second tomb, from a later period. Sometimes — the most common scenario — it opens opposite the first, while at other times, it is established on one of the long sides of the shaft. Each chamber contains a certain number of deceased individuals: in one of those we excavated, there were at least twenty-three. It is likely that after the burials, the shafts were backfilled with earth and rubble. Three funeral rites were distinguished: the rarest involved simply laying the deceased on the ground, while another entailed haphazardly gathering bones, either on the floor, benches, troughs, or in clay vessels. Sometimes, a broken amphora served as a container. It was observed that these mixed human remains likely underwent defleshing before being buried. This suggests that our tombs were not family graves but likely brought together individuals from Gunugu who died around the same time.

Hydraulic works

In the Larhat (formerly Vileborug) region, remnants of an ancient dam, constructed with rubble, lime, and sand, were found near Toued Mellah. This dam supplied water to the city of Gunugu (now Sidi-Brahim) via a canal constructed above the current road, lined with stone masonry and internally asphalted with crushed brick and lime. However, successive ground subsidence and seismic movements have largely destroyed this structure. Near the border between Larhat (formerly Vileborug) and Gouraya, the canal passed through a tunnel under a hill, where it remains relatively well preserved. On the Harbil wadi, the remains of a small dam were discovered, likely intended to irrigate gardens on the left bank of the wadi. In the Gouraya region, traces of a reservoir basin, possibly used for irrigation, were found between the Messelmoun and Sebt wadis. In the Menaceur (formerly Marceau) region, irrigation along the banks of the Rouman wadi was facilitated by a 7 to 8-meter-long dam. Ruins of an ancient aqueduct were also observed along the Aïzer wadi, with intact arches at both ends, as well as remnants of canalization along its left bank. Near Menaceur (formerly Marceau), the Zélazel wadi was diverted, and the canal remains visible above the current road. Similarly, the Zaouïa wadi was diverted, with remnants of the canal visible along the route from Zurich to Menaceur (formerly Marceau). These canals converged near the Bocquet farm and continued through the mountains, valleys, and aqueducts to Caesarea, providing water to the city. Additionally, remnants of a dam on the Zaouïa wadi, located 500 to 600 meters downstream from the diversion point, were found, though their significance and purpose remain unclear.

Port

Coastal sites, as seen from Gunugu's perspective, serve as regular "staging posts" every 30 to 40 kilometers eastward. Among them, Gunugu itself, dating back to the 5th century BCE, stands out, reflecting evolving economic ties while political allegiance to Carthage remains uncertain. The ancient city of Gunugu, now Breshk, is mentioned in historical texts with conflicting accounts regarding the presence of a port. While some sources indicate the absence of a formal port, others suggest the existence of a modest harbour or anchorage. Piri Reïs asserts the lack of a port but notes abundant fish in the area, hinting at maritime activity. Additionally, Laurent mentions a small harbour on the northeastern side of the island, suggesting limited maritime infrastructure. Insights from Gsell and Cat (cited above) reveal remnants of a jetty and stairs near the promontory, supported by field surveysRafik, Khellaf. "Quelques données sur le port antique de Gunugu Some data on the ancient harbor of Gunugu. El-Ryssala des études et recherches en sciences humaines. Vol. 8, Nr. 02 (2023). pp 774-783 uncovering reservoirs along the cliff walls overlooking the presumed port location, indicating potential water supply infrastructure for maritime activities. However, challenges such as erosion and landslides obscure historical features, complicating confirmation of a port's presence. Despite this, Gunugu's strategic location along trade routes between Cartennae and Caesarea suggests probable maritime activity. In conclusion, while evidence hints at maritime infrastructure in Gunugu, including reservoirs and potential remnants of jetties, further archaeological investigations are necessary to determine the port's extent and nature. Understanding Gunugu's maritime heritage is crucial given its historical significance as a trade hub in a strategic location.

Trade and commerce

Gunugu's archaeological record attests to its importance as a vibrant centre of trade and commerce in the ancient Mediterranean world. Imported pottery from Italy, including finely crafted vases and vessels, provides tangible evidence of maritime links and commercial exchange. While Roman-era treaties restricted direct Roman access to African ports, Gunugu probably served as an intermediary hub, receiving goods via Carthaginian merchants. This underlines the city's key role in facilitating trade networks and cultural exchange across the region.

References

Citations

Bibliography

* {{Phoenician cities and colonies, state=collapsed Archaeological sites in Algeria Catholic titular sees in Africa Roman towns and cities in Mauretania Caesariensis Ancient Berber cities Phoenician colonies in Algeria