Guglielmo Boccanegra
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Guglielmo Boccanegra was a Genoese statesman, the first ''
capitano del popolo Captain of the people () was an administrative title used in Italy during the Middle Ages, established essentially to balance the power and authority of the noble families of the Italian city-states.Najemy, John M. 2006. ''A History of Florence 1 ...
'' of the
Republic of Genoa The Republic of Genoa ( ; ; ) was a medieval and early modern Maritime republics, maritime republic from the years 1099 to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italy, Italian coast. During the Late Middle Ages, it was a major commercial power in ...
, from 1257 to 1262, exercising a real lordship, assisted in the government by a council of 32 elders.


Biography


Origin and early years

The exact origin of the Boccanegra family is unclear. They were originally not members of the Genoese aristocracy, but rather "''popolare''" (burghers). Its first known member may have been a certain "Buccanigra" who is attested in 1201, and within a generation, several members are attested as merchants in the Western Mediterranean. In 1235, a Rinaldo Boccanegra was member of the commune council, followed by Marino Boccanegra 13 years later. Like other Genoese families, the Boccanegra were active participants in the
Seventh Crusade The Seventh Crusade (1248–1254) was the first of the two Crusades led by Louis IX of France. Also known as the Crusade of Louis IX to the Holy Land, it aimed to reclaim the Holy Land by attacking Egypt, the main seat of Muslim power in the Nea ...
of
Louis IX of France Louis IX (25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270), also known as Saint Louis, was King of France from 1226 until his death in 1270. He is widely recognized as the most distinguished of the Direct Capetians. Following the death of his father, Louis VI ...
, profiting from the provisioning of supplies and the equipping of ships for the Crusaders. Guglielmo is said to have participated in the Aragonese conquest of Majorca in 1229, but no evidence to substantiate this exists. He is first securely attested in 1249, as one of the Genoese consuls at
Aigues-Mortes Aigues-Mortes (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Gard Departments of France, department in the Occitania (administrative region), Occitania region of southern France. The medieval Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes, city walls surrounding th ...
(the main embarkation port for the Crusade), while in 1249–50 he was at
Acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...
, where he undertook to pay salaries to the followers of Alphonse of Poitiers, Louis IX's younger brother. On his return from the Crusade, he became a commune councilman, in 1251 and again in 1256.


Rise to power


Background

At the time, Genoa was emerging from the bitter struggles between the
Pope The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...
, supported by the
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faction, and the
Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans (disambiguation), Emperor of the Romans (; ) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period (; ), was the ruler and h ...
Frederick II Hohenstaufen (), supported by the
Ghibellines The Guelphs and Ghibellines ( , ; ) were factions supporting the Pope (Guelphs) and the Holy Roman Emperor (Ghibellines) in the Italian city-states of Central Italy and Northern Italy during the Middle Ages. During the 12th and 13th centurie ...
. Genoa had sided with the Papacy—especially with the election of the Genoese
Innocent IV Pope Innocent IV (; – 7 December 1254), born Sinibaldo Fieschi, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 25 June 1243 to his death in 1254. Fieschi was born in Genoa and studied at the universities of Parma and Bolo ...
, —and expelled its Ghibellines from the city. During the conflict, in order to broaden the basis of the regime and gain popular backing, the Guelph nobles that dominated the Republic had established the magistracy of the two ''capitani del popolo e del Comune'' ('Captains of the People and of the Commune'), but with restricted powers. When Frederick II died in 1250, the Guelph nobles prudently allowed the exiled Ghibelline opponents to return to the city, and even gave them some compensation, in an effort to strengthen the nobility's position against the common people. This policy was helped by the economic boom experienced during the 1250s: despite constant military commitments overseas, trade expanded, leading to an influx of bankers and money-changers, as well as artisans, from other parts of Italy and France. This prosperity was epitomized by the coining of the '' Genovino'', the first gold coin issued by any Italian city-state. At the same time, the newfound wealth was unevenly distributed, accruing mostly to the hands of a few noble merchant families, and both popular discontent and the Guelph–Ghibelline divide continued to simmer beneath the surface. This came to the fore in 1256, when a succession of crises assailed the Republic. France stopped putting orders for new ships and refused to pay her previous orders; coupled with the end of the conflict with the Emperor, this left the Genoese economy, which had been long geared towards equipping warships, dry. The brewing trouble in the economy manifested itself when the Negrobono and Calvo banks and several wool workers went bankrupt in 1256. Domestically, the government had to enforce a Papal ordnance against heretics, while abroad, Genoa's position in Sicily and the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
suffered setbacks, with the outbreak of the
War of Saint Sabas The War of Saint Sabas (1256–1270) was a conflict between the rival Italian maritime republics of Genoa (aided by Philip of Montfort, Lord of Tyre, John of Arsuf, and the Knights Hospitaller) and Venice (aided by the Count of Jaffa and Asca ...
against the
Republic of Venice The Republic of Venice, officially the Most Serene Republic of Venice and traditionally known as La Serenissima, was a sovereign state and Maritime republics, maritime republic with its capital in Venice. Founded, according to tradition, in 697 ...
.


Coup d'état

It was this atmosphere of crisis that Boccanegra came to the fore, but why exactly remains a puzzle; as the historian Steven Epstein comments, his recorded career until this point was unexceptional. The historian Robert Lopez suggested that as councilman, he had attacked the abuses and suggested reforms, but Epstein remarks that he may have "possessed the political knack of being all things to all people": his wealth made him suitable to the elite, while his non-noble origin made him popular with the common people. Matters came to a head during the trial of the outgoing ''
podestà (), also potestate or podesta in English, was the name given to the holder of the highest civil office in the government of the cities of central and northern Italy during the Late Middle Ages. Sometimes, it meant the chief magistrate of a c ...
'', , for embezzlement. Although his guilt was plain, he was only condemned to imprisonment and a fine, leading to riots by the common people. Incited by the Ghibelline faction with the cry of ''fiat populus'' ('power to the people'), in January 1257 the common people took up arms, assembled at the square in front of the church of
San Siro San Siro is a football stadium in the San Siro district of Milan, Italy. It has a seating capacity of 75,817, making it the largest stadium in Italy and one of the largest stadiums in Europe. It is the home stadium of the city's principal ...
, and proclaimed Boccanegra as sole ''
capitano del popolo Captain of the people () was an administrative title used in Italy during the Middle Ages, established essentially to balance the power and authority of the noble families of the Italian city-states.Najemy, John M. 2006. ''A History of Florence 1 ...
''. Boccanegra, initially reluctant, was led into the church of San Siro, where the people swore allegiance to him. The next day, the new regime took shape, at the Cathedral of San Lorenzo, in the presence of the new ''podestà''. Boccanegra was given supreme power in order to reform the statutes of the commune, and was to be assisted by a council of 32 ''anziani'' ('elders'), four for each of the city's eight wards. A few days later, his position was further enhanced: the ''anziani'' extended his tenure to ten years, rather than the usual single year, and it was stipulated that if he died before that, one of his brothers would succeed him. A yearly salary of a thousand pounds, the palace of the Richerio family, a personal staff of a knight, two notaries and a judge, and a personal guard (12 guards and fifty armed servants) were placed at his disposal, all to be paid from the public treasury.


Rule over Genoa


Consolidation of power

According to Lopez, the long term of office, and the provision for a quasi-dynastic succession, effectively made Boccanegra's rule into a
lordship A lordship is a territory held by a lord. It was a landed estate that served as the lowest administrative and judicial unit in rural areas. It originated as a unit under the feudal system during the Middle Ages. In a lordship, the functions of eco ...
rather than an ordinary magistracy. The ''podestà'' was reduced to handling the minutiae of day-to-day government. Seeing his powers curtailed, the incumbent ''podestà'' resigned, and was replaced by another, more amenable to Boccanegra. According to Epstein, the people who actually brought Boccanegra to power were the disenfranchised middle classes—the "middling traders and master artisans"—that had gained in prosperity during the previous years, but were still excluded from governance. The Ghibelline nobles, who had wanted to see a change of faction rather than the installation of a new regime, began to oppose Boccanegra. Opposed by the aristocracy, Boccanegra's regime would gradually become more authoritarian and increasingly rely on support from the common people. With popular backing, and the support of some of the Ghibelline families, Boccanegra was able to weather the first crisis of his regime, Boccanegra reserved the nomination of all officials for himself. The Guelph nobles soon conspired against him, but Boccanegra, apprised of their plans, allowed them to be warned that he would severely punish them. As a result, the nobles fled the city, and were promptly banned from returning. In the aftermath of this affair, Boccanegra settled in the palace of one of their leaders, Obizzo Fieschi. His position was further strengthened when Cardinal Ottobuono Fieschi, who had arrived under the pretext of a diplomatic mission, but in reality to stir up opposition against him, was forced to leave the city after the people rioted. By 1260, Boccanegra was at the height of his power and prestige, and governed the city as a ''de facto'' autocrat ("", according to the pro-aristocratic ''
Annales ianuenses The ''Annales ianuenses'' (Latin: "Genoese annals") or ''Annali Genovesi'' form the official history of the Republic of Genoa during the High Middle Ages. It is the earliest medieval civic chronicle and the earliest set of annals composed by a lay ...
'').


Financial reforms

With his position consolidated, Boccanegra turned to the mounting financial crisis he had inherited. The Commune's taxable revenue had been already purchased in advance by officials of the previous regime at low prices, in contravention of the existing laws. Boccanegra was loath to raise new indirect taxes, so with a decree issued on 16 June 1259, he converted all public debt into a consolidated and redeemable loan, at a modest and fixed interest of eight percent. This measure, which was sworn to by both the popular assembly and prominent Ghibelline nobles, not only hurt many magnates, but also gave Boccanegra the funds necessary for an expansionary fiscal policy. The chief pillar of this policy was a public works programme, including the building of a new town hall—the
Palazzo San Giorgio The Palazzo San Giorgio or Palace of St. George (also known as the Palazzo delle Compere di San Giorgio) is one of the most important and well-known historic buildings in Genoa. It currently houses the headquarters of the Port System Authority of ...
—and the expansion of the harbour facilities. Apart from the functional and symbolical value of these constructions, these new buildings also employed many citizens, helping to end the crisis. At the same time, he successfully strove to eliminate many feudal taxes levied by the Malaspina marquesses and other lords of the Ligurian countryside, that pre-dated the establishment of the Genoese Commune; he purchased at a favorable rate the rights of the Archbishopric of Genoa on maritime trade; and tried, without success, to eliminate the taxes levied by a few noble families as part of their inheritance from the now-abolished viscounts of the region. The banking crisis continued into 1259, with mixed success. Boccanegra managed to avert the bankruptcy of the Aschieri bank, and the influence of his brother, Lanfranco, resulted in the rescue of the bank of Oberto di Nizza, but despite promising to pay its creditors 90% of their debts, he was unable to prevent the bankruptcy of one of the most important banks, that of Guglielmo Leccacorvo. At the same time, Boccanegra encouraged the organization of the city's artisans into guilds, and from 1259 on included the heads of the guilds are represented, along with the Commune councillors and the ''anziani'', among those ratifying treaties on behalf of the Republic. In addition, his treaty with
Manfred of Sicily Manfred (; 123226 February 1266) was the last King of Sicily from the Hohenstaufen dynasty, reigning from 1258 until his death. The natural son of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, Manfred became regent over the Kingdom of Sicily on b ...
(see
below Below may refer to: *Earth *Ground (disambiguation) *Soil *Floor * Bottom (disambiguation) *Less than *Temperatures below freezing *Hell or underworld People with the surname * Ernst von Below (1863–1955), German World War I general * Fred Belo ...
) helped revive commerce.


Foreign affairs

One of the first steps Boccanegra took was a treaty with Frederick II's son,
Manfred of Sicily Manfred (; 123226 February 1266) was the last King of Sicily from the Hohenstaufen dynasty, reigning from 1258 until his death. The natural son of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, Manfred became regent over the Kingdom of Sicily on b ...
, which once more opened the
Kingdom of Sicily The Kingdom of Sicily (; ; ) was a state that existed in Sicily and the southern Italian peninsula, Italian Peninsula as well as, for a time, in Kingdom of Africa, Northern Africa, from its founding by Roger II of Sicily in 1130 until 1816. It was ...
to Genoese commerce. This was a departure from the policy followed by the Guelph-dominated government until then, which sought to impose terms on Manfred via the Papacy. On the other hand, the ongoing war with
Pisa Pisa ( ; ) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) in Tuscany, Central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for the Leaning Tow ...
over
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; ; ) is the Mediterranean islands#By area, second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, and one of the Regions of Italy, twenty regions of Italy. It is located west of the Italian Peninsula, north of Tunisia an ...
took a turn for the worse, with the loss of
Cagliari Cagliari (, , ; ; ; Latin: ''Caralis'') is an Comune, Italian municipality and the capital and largest city of the island of Sardinia, an Regions of Italy#Autonomous regions with special statute, autonomous region of Italy. It has about 146,62 ...
and
Santa Igia Santa Igia or Santa Ilia, modern Santa Gilla lagoon (''Santa Ilia'' being a contraction of ''Santa Cecilia''), was a city in Sardinia, in what is now Italy, which existed from the 9th century AD to 1258, when it was destroyed by Pisan and Sardinian ...
. The main problem that Boccanegra had inherited, however, was the conflict with Venice over access to the markets of the Levant: the War of Saint Sabas. Following two naval defeats, in 1258 the Genoese lost Acre, their main trade entrepot to the region, to the Venetians allied with the Pisans. The loss was made somewhat redressed when the pro-Ghibelline Lord of Tyre, Philip of Montfort, offered to accommodate the Genoese there instead, but the defeats eroded Boccanegra's prestige, and showed the problems arising from the new regime: the defeated admirals were not chosen for ability, but for political reliability, and the war exacerbated the Republic's financial situation. The major accomplishment of his administration was the conclusion with the
Byzantine Emperor The foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, which Fall of Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised s ...
Michael VIII Palaiologos Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus (; 1224 – 11 December 1282) reigned as Byzantine emperor from 1261 until his death in 1282, and previously as the co-emperor of the Empire of Nicaea from 1259 to 1261. Michael VIII was the founder of th ...
of the Treaty of Nymphaeum on 13 March 1261. The treaty obliged Genoa to furnish a fleet of 50 vessels, with their expenses paid by the Emperor, for service against Venice and in support of Palaiologos' aim of recovering
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
. In exchange, however, the Genoese secured very advantageous commercial terms; following a successful recovery of Constantinople, the Genoese stood to effectively inherit and even expand upon the privileged position that the Venetians held in the Latin Empire. In the event, Constantinople was recovered by the Nicaeans barely a fortnight after the treaty was signed, without the need for Genoese naval assistance. Nevertheless, Michael VIII scrupulously observed the terms of the Treaty of Nymphaeum, as Genoese naval strength was still necessary to confront a potential Venetian counterstrike while a native Byzantine fleet was slowly being re-established. With the Emperor's subsidies, the Genoese were able to increase their fleet strength considerably.


Exile and death

However, Boccanegra failed to silence the domestic opposition of the old noble families, who deposed him in a bloody coup in May 1262. In exile, Boccanegra entered the service of the
King of France France was ruled by monarchs from the establishment of the kingdom of West Francia in 843 until the end of the Second French Empire in 1870, with several interruptions. Classical French historiography usually regards Clovis I, king of the Fra ...
, undertaking the fortification of
Aigues-Mortes Aigues-Mortes (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Gard Departments of France, department in the Occitania (administrative region), Occitania region of southern France. The medieval Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes, city walls surrounding th ...
as its governor. He died there sometime in 1273.


Legacy

Boccanegra's rule inaugurated a period in Genoese history named after the recurrent rule of ''capitani del popolo'', mostly from the Ghibelline
Spinola Spinola is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Agostino Spinola (d. 1537), Italian cardinal * Alberto Spinola (born 1943), Italian water polo player * Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases (1569–1630), Genoese banker an ...
and Doria families, in between periods of rule by ''podestàs''. This lasted until 1311, and is generally considered by historians as "the most brilliant phase of the city's prosperity and influence". Nevertheless, the memory of Boccanegra's rule was controversial: the annalists, who represent the interests of the city's elites, treat him with hostility, but the common people soon grew nostalgic for a "popular" government. This sentiment would aid Guglielmo's great-grandson,
Simone Boccanegra Simone Boccanegra (; ; died 1363) was the first Doge of Genoa. He became doge in 1339, but was ousted from power six years later. He regained the position in 1356, retaining it until his death in 1363. His story was popularized by Antonio Gar ...
, to become the first doge of the Republic in 1339.


References


Sources

* * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Boccanegra, Guglielmo 1273 deaths Year of birth unknown 13th-century Genoese people Guglielmo 13th-century politicians People of the War of Saint Sabas Christians of the Seventh Crusade Heads of state of Genoa