Gregentios
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Gregentios (
Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
: Γρηγέντιος) was the purported archbishop of Ẓafār, the capital of the kingdom of
Ḥimyar Himyar was a polity in the southern highlands of Yemen, as well as the name of the region which it claimed. Until 110 BCE, it was integrated into the Qatabanian kingdom, afterwards being recognized as an independent kingdom. According to class ...
, in the mid-6th century, according to a
hagiographical A hagiography (; ) is a biography of a saint or an ecclesiastical leader, as well as, by extension, an adulatory and idealized biography of a preacher, priest, founder, saint, monk, nun or icon in any of the world's religions. Early Christian ...
dossier compiled in the 10th century. This compilation is essentially legendary and fictitious, although a few parts of it are of historical value. Written in Greek, it survives also in a Slavonic translation. The three works in the dossier are conventionally known as the ''Bios'' (Life), ''Nomoi'' (Laws) and ''Dialexis'' (Debate), respectively a biography of Gregentios, the laws he wrote for the kingdom and a debate he had with a Jew. The whole dossier is sometimes known as the ''Acts'' of Gregentios.


Name

The name Gregentios is unknown apart from the ''Bios'' and related texts. According to the ''Bios'', he received his name from a local holy man. Several later scribes, encountering an unheard of name, changed it to Gregorios (Gregory). This is the name that appears in all the Slavonic versions, as well as an
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
translation of the ''Dialexis''. It also appears in the fresco depicting Gregentios in the monastery of Koutsovendis on Cyprus, painted between 1110 and 1118. Other scribal emendations are Gregentinos and Rhegentios. The name has a
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
ending, which may indicate a western origin for the name, but such suffixes had entered vernacular Greek by the time the ''Bios'' was written. The name may be derived from ''Agrigentius'', "man from
Agrigento Agrigento (; or ) is a city on the southern coast of Sicily, Italy and capital of the province of Agrigento. Founded around 582 BC by Greek colonists from Gela, Agrigento, then known as Akragas, was one of the leading cities during the golden ...
", or from a combination of the name Gregory with either ''Agrigentius'' or the name of Saint
Vincentius Vincent (Latin: ''Vincentius'') is a masculine given name originating from the Roman name ''Vincentius'', which itself comes from the Latin verb ''vincere'', meaning "to conquer." People with the given name Artists *Vincent Apap (1909–2003) ...
. The biography of Gregory of Agrigento was a major source used by the author of the ''Bios'', and an itinerary of Vincentius may also have been used. The only known persons named after Gregentios are two 19th-century monks of
Mount Athos Mount Athos (; ) is a mountain on the Athos peninsula in northeastern Greece directly on the Aegean Sea. It is an important center of Eastern Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodox monasticism. The mountain and most of the Athos peninsula are governed ...
. The first was the
archimandrite The title archimandrite (; ), used in Eastern Christianity, originally referred to a superior abbot ('' hegumenos'', , present participle of the verb meaning "to lead") whom a bishop appointed to supervise several "ordinary" abbots and monaste ...
of
Vatopedi The Holy and Great Monastery of Vatopedi (, ) is an Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodox monastery on Mount Athos, Greece. The monastery was expanded several times during its history, particularly during the Byzantine period and in the 18t ...
in April 1842 and the second a monk of the
Skete of Saint Anne The Skete of St Anne is a dependent idiorrhythmic (Hermitage (religious retreat), hermitage-style) skete, a monastic community attached to the more formalised Great Lavra in Mount Athos, Greece. It lies on the shore of the Aegean Sea about 800 m ...
who died in 1879 aged 69. Both monastic communities had copies of the ''Bios'' and ''Dialexis'' of Gregentios.


Overview

The ''Bios'', which Jean-Marie Sansterre called a "hagiographical romance", is divided into nine chapters. While the first eight are vague in their chronology and geography, the ninth draws on superior historical sources and contains more precise details. The early part, which includes an Avar raid on his hometown, may also reflect authentic conditions in the northern Balkans during the later 6th century. The ''Bios'' was completed either at
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
in the 10th century or in
Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...
in the 9th century. The ''Nomoi'' and ''Dialexis'' are later additions. The whole collection, which presents as a unity, was not brought together before the 10th century. The ''Nomoi'' may contain some authentic information, since it shares characteristics with legal inscriptions from pre-Islamic South Arabia. The ''Dialexis'', which is a debate between Gregentios and a
Jew Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, religion, and community are highly inte ...
named Herban, was the most popular part of the work and circulated independently into modern times.


''Bios''


Early life in Avaria

According to his ''Bios'', Gregentios was born on 6 December in the late 5th century in the town of Lyplianes (
Ljubljana {{Infobox settlement , name = Ljubljana , official_name = , settlement_type = Capital city , image_skyline = {{multiple image , border = infobox , perrow = 1/2/2/1 , total_widt ...
) in the land of the Avars. His father was named Agapios and his mother Eusebia. At his baptism, he was named after a sage who lived on a nearby mountain. His schooling begins at the age of seven. At the age of ten, he is pushed into a river by a deer. Miraculously saved from drowning, he retires to the desert, where he receives instruction and prophecies about his future from a holy man. When his mother dies, Gregentios is placed in the custody of the married but childless priest who baptised him. During a barbarian invasion, the townspeople flee to the fortress of Korada. Gregentios, who was in the vineyards at the time, manages to sneak in through the Rhomanesios gate while the fortress is besieged. After the barbarians retreat, both Gregentios and his foster mother have prophetic dreams about him. At the urging of a certain Sergios, his foster mother tells her dream to an elder named Niketas, who interprets it as saying that Gregentios will one day convert a fourfold people.


Travels

Gregentios next traveled extensively in northern and central
Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...
and
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
before sailing to
Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
in Egypt. The ''Bios'' presents him as travelling from Lyplianes to Moryne (
Murano Murano is a series of islands linked by bridges in the Venetian Lagoon, northern Italy. It lies about north of Venice and measures about across with a population of just over 5,000 (2004 figures). It is famous for its glass making. It was o ...
), Antenora (
Padua Padua ( ) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) in Veneto, northern Italy, and the capital of the province of Padua. The city lies on the banks of the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice and southeast of Vicenza, and has a population of 20 ...
) and
Agrigento Agrigento (; or ) is a city on the southern coast of Sicily, Italy and capital of the province of Agrigento. Founded around 582 BC by Greek colonists from Gela, Agrigento, then known as Akragas, was one of the leading cities during the golden ...
, then by boat to
Pavia Pavia ( , ; ; ; ; ) is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy, in Northern Italy, south of Milan on the lower Ticino (river), Ticino near its confluence with the Po (river), Po. It has a population of c. 73,086. The city was a major polit ...
, then to
Milan Milan ( , , ; ) is a city in northern Italy, regional capital of Lombardy, the largest city in Italy by urban area and the List of cities in Italy, second-most-populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of nea ...
and
Carthage Carthage was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classic ...
, then by foot to
Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...
, then to Augustopolis (either Augusta or
Koper Koper (; ) is the List of cities and towns in Slovenia, fifth-largest city in Slovenia. Located in the Slovenian Istria, Istrian region in the southwestern part of the country, Koper is the main urban center of the Slovene coast. Port of Koper i ...
) and finally
Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
. In its order, timing and means of travel, this itinerary is absurd.


Padania and Sicily

Gregentios first departs with the holy man from the desert. They reach Moryne in a single day. There they stay with a man named Sabbatios, where a
holy fool Foolishness for Christ (; ) refers to behavior such as giving up all one's worldly possessions upon joining an ascetic order or religious life, or deliberately flouting society's conventions to serve a religious purpose—particularly of Christia ...
named Peter informs Gregentios that his foster parents are searching for him. The holy man and Gregentios leave Moryne after the local bishop learns of the latter's spiritual gifts. In Antenora, they stay in the house of Theodoretos, while the bishop of Moryne searches for him. Bishop Eulogios of Antenora makes Gregentios a
deacon A deacon is a member of the diaconate, an office in Christian churches that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. Major Christian denominations, such as the Cathol ...
and
lector Lector is Latin for one who reads, whether aloud or not. In modern languages it takes various forms, as either a development or a loan, such as , , and . It has various specialized uses. Academic The title ''lector'' may be applied to lecturers ...
. A holy woman named Theodora informs him again of his foster parents' search. With the holy man, Gregentios moves on to Agrigento, leaving the bishop of Antenora also to send searchers after him. He is hosted by the priest Stephanos in the church of the Mother of God outside the walls. He visits the grave of the hermit Eirene, who appears to him and talks to him. He visits two churches in the city, and a woman preaching to a crowd from a balcony predicts that he will go to Egypt and Ḥimyar. The holy man then appears and whisks Gregentios away to Milan. Going by boat, they pass Rome on the way. In Milan, Gregentios stays with one Niketas, while the holy man moves on to Largention (
Piacenza Piacenza (; ; ) is a city and (municipality) in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy, and the capital of the province of Piacenza, eponymous province. As of 2022, Piacenza is the ninth largest city in the region by population, with more ...
). He visits the grave of
Saint Ambrose Ambrose of Milan (; 4 April 397), venerated as Saint Ambrose, was a theologian and statesman who served as Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397. He expressed himself prominently as a public figure, fiercely promoting Roman Christianity against Ari ...
and begins reading his works. He takes on as a disciple a boy of fourteen named Leon, who later becomes governor of Melike (either
Ravenna Ravenna ( ; , also ; ) is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the capital city of the Western Roman Empire during the 5th century until its Fall of Rome, collapse in 476, after which ...
or the land of the
Melingoi The Melingoi or Milingoi () were a Slavic tribe that settled in the Peloponnese in southern Greece during the Middle Ages. In the early decades of the 7th century, Slavic tribes (Sclaveni) settled throughout the Balkans following the collapse of ...
) and is assassinated. Gregentios has a vision of the underworld in which he sees Leon among those who died before their time awaiting the
Last Judgement The Last Judgment is a concept found across the Abrahamic religions and the '' Frashokereti'' of Zoroastrianism. Christianity considers the Second Coming of Jesus Christ to entail the final judgment by God of all people who have ever lived, res ...
. The holy man then returns and the two travel to Carthage, where they stay with one Constantine.


Carthage and Rome

In Carthage, Gregentios meets a woman named Philothea who is regarded as a mute who only barks and sighs. The holy man reveals that this is merely a gift God gave her to ward off a man who tried to seduce her. She speaks to Gregentios clearly and lucidly. During his time in Carthage, he befriends a young man named George and they visit a church dedicated to Saint Anastasia. There, a holy woman identifies Gregentios by name and birthplace. When George asks for the same treatment, she reproaches and names the women he has been sinning with. Another young man, a
Thracia Thracia or Thrace () is the ancient name given to the southeastern Balkans, Balkan region, the land inhabited by the Thracians. Thrace was ruled by the Odrysian kingdom during the Classical Greece, Classical and Hellenistic period, Hellenis ...
n named Pothetos, asks Gregentios for spiritual advice. Gregentios writes sixteen homilies that make Pothetos regret his marriage, but Gregentios convinces him to go home to his wife. From Carthage, the holy man takes Gregentios to Rome. On the way, he has a vision of the devil in the valley of Patherolymna. In Rome, they stay with a man named Benedict near the Great Portico. He owns a slave named Elizabeth, who is sexually abused by a demon every night. After Gregentios writes a formula on a piece of papyrus and gives it to her, she is freed from the demon. One day, Gregentios is visited by
Saint Peter Saint Peter (born Shimon Bar Yonah; 1 BC – AD 64/68), also known as Peter the Apostle, Simon Peter, Simeon, Simon, or Cephas, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus and one of the first leaders of the Jewish Christian#Jerusalem ekklēsia, e ...
, who had been absent from his grave when Gregentios visited it, for he had gone to give comfort to the persecuted Christians of Negra (Najrān). He tells Gregentios that the time has not yet come for the holy man's identity to be revealed. Later, a woman identifies Gregentios by name as the prophet of the Ḥimyarites. He is also identified by name by the monk Abramios. At the request of a beggar named Zacharias, he heals the eye of a youth named Basil. In ecstasy at the tomb of
Saint Paul Paul, also named Saul of Tarsus, commonly known as Paul the Apostle and Saint Paul, was a Christian apostle ( AD) who spread the teachings of Jesus in the first-century world. For his contributions towards the New Testament, he is generally ...
, he sees a vision of the saint bringing him a
pallium The pallium (derived from the Roman ''pallium'' or ''palla'', a woolen cloak; : pallia) is an ecclesiastical vestment in the Catholic Church, originally peculiar to the pope, but for many centuries bestowed by the Holy See upon metropolitan bish ...
. Gregentios visits a church dedicated to
Saint Boniface Boniface, OSB (born Wynfreth; 675 –5 June 754) was an English Benedictines, Benedictine monk and leading figure in the Anglo-Saxon mission to the Germanic parts of Francia during the eighth century. He organised significant foundations of ...
, whose feast day he will come to share. He meets a
fool for Christ Foolishness for Christ (; ) refers to behavior such as giving up all one's worldly possessions upon joining an ascetic order or religious life, or deliberately flouting society's conventions to serve a religious purpose—particularly of Christia ...
named John who throws stones at passersby. He visits a hermit named Michael, who sends him on to a hermit named Artados, who lives atop a mountain beyond the Dry Lakes. Artados prophesies in detail about Gregentios' future in Egypt and Ḥimyar, where he will convert four peoples: pagans, Jews, Ḥimyarites and Maurousians. After a stay of two days, Gregentios returns to Rome, where he meets
Pope Felix IV Pope Felix IV (489/490 – 22 September 530) was the bishop of Rome from 12 July 526 to his death on 22 September 530. He was the chosen candidate of Ostrogoth King Theodoric the Great, who had imprisoned Felix's predecessor, John I. Rise Felix c ...
(526–530). The holy man rejoins him and they go to Augustopolis.


Alexandria

In Augustopolis, Gregentios stays with a widow named Euphemia. In the market, he meets an
Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...
from Artazat (
Artaxata Artashat (), Greek language, Hellenized as Artaxata () and Artaxiasata (), was a major city and commercial center of ancient Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity), Armenia that served as the capital of the Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity), Kingdom of Ar ...
), who prophesies his future. After a few days, the holy man and Gregentios board a ship from
Leukas Lefkada (, ''Lefkáda'', ), also known as Lefkas or Leukas (Ancient Greek and Katharevousa: Λευκάς, ''Leukás'', modern pronunciation ''Lefkás'') and Leucadia, is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea on the west coast of Greece, connected to ...
for Alexandria. There, Gregentios is greeted by name by a female slave, whose prophesies how the patriarch will call him to be an archbishop. He stays in the house of one Leontios. In Alexandria, he visits a monastery led by a eunuch-abbot named Epiphanios. His prayers chase away a devil who throws stones at a monk named Kosmas. A woman named Archontia greets him by name.


Bishop in South Arabia

The last part of the ''Bios'' "contains the only clear historical information scattered through the whole" of the Gregentios materials. In 523, the Ḥimyarite king Dhū Nuwās massacres the Christians of Najrān and its leader, Arethas. The Emperor
Justin I Justin I (; ; 450 – 1 August 527), also called Justin the Thracian (; ), was Roman emperor from 518 to 527. Born to a peasant family, he rose through the ranks of the army to become commander of the imperial guard and when Emperor Anastasi ...
asks the
Ethiopian Ethiopians are the native inhabitants of Ethiopia, as well as the global diaspora of Ethiopia. Ethiopians constitute several component ethnic groups, many of which are closely related to ethnic groups in neighboring Eritrea and other parts of ...
(Aksumite) king Elesboam (Caleb) to lead an expedition against Dhū Nuwās. Elesboam writes to the
patriarch of Alexandria The Patriarch of Alexandria is the archbishop of Alexandria, Egypt. Historically, this office has included the designation "pope" (etymologically "Father", like "Abbot"). The Alexandrian episcopate was revered as one of the three major epi ...
, Proterios, for a bishop to evangelize the Ḥimyarites. (The actual patriarch at this time was
Timothy IV Timothy is a masculine name. It comes from the Greek name ( Timόtheos) meaning "honouring God", "in God's honour", or "honoured by God". Timothy (and its variations) is a common name in several countries. People Given name * Timothy (given name ...
.)
Saint Mark Mark the Evangelist ( Koinē Greek: Μᾶρκος, romanized: ''Mârkos''), also known as John Mark ( Koinē Greek: Ἰωάννης Μᾶρκος, romanized: ''Iōánnēs Mârkos;'' Aramaic'': ܝܘܚܢܢ, romanized: Yōḥannān'') or Saint Ma ...
informs Proterios of Gregentios in a dream. The patriarch consecrates Gregentios as bishop and send him back with the Ethiopian envoys. This takes place after the successful Ethiopian conquest of Ḥimyar (525). In Ethiopia, Gregentios stays for a time in the capital, Amlem (
Aksum Axum, also spelled Aksum (), is a town in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia with a population of 66,900 residents (as of 2015). It is the site of the historic capital of the Aksumite Empire. Axum is located in the Central Zone of the Tigray Regi ...
), before crossing the sea to Medekion ( Maddaban) and then heading to Taphar ( Ẓafār) and finally Najrān, where he meets the king. He consecrates the churches that the kings has built and installs priests in them at Najrān, Ẓafār, Akana ( Bi'r Ali), Atarph (
Ẓufār The Dhofar Governorate () is the largest of the 11 governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen's Al Mahrah Governorate and the southern border with Saudi Arabia's Eastern P ...
), Legmia ( Laḥj), Azaki (
Aden Aden () is a port city located in Yemen in the southern part of the Arabian peninsula, on the north coast of the Gulf of Aden, positioned near the eastern approach to the Red Sea. It is situated approximately 170 km (110 mi) east of ...
) and Iouze ( Mawzaʿ).For the identification of places, often uncertain, see . The ''Bios'' describes Elesboam's retirement to a monastery and the miraculous invocation of his name. Gregentios threatens the Ḥimyarites with the death penalty for all those who do not convert, whereupon the hole country becomes Christian. The ''Dialexis'' is interposed here, and the end of the ''Bios'' follows. Gregentios remains in Ḥimyar for thirty years, assisting Elesboam's appointed viceroy,
Abraha Abraha ( Ge’ez: አብርሃ) (also spelled Abreha, died presumably 570 CE) was an Aksumite military leader who controlled the Kingdom of Himyar (modern-day Yemen) and a large part of Arabia for over 30 years in the 6th century. Originally ...
, in building churches. Shortly after Abraha dies and is succeeded by his son Seridos ( Masrūq), Gregentios dies on 19 December. He is buried in the cathedral. He is commemorated in the ''
Synaxarion of Constantinople The ''Synaxarion of Constantinople'' (or ''Synaxarion of the Great Church'') is a Byzantine Greek language, Greek collection of brief notices of saints commemorated in the Ecumenical Patriarchate, churches of Constantinople arranged by Feast day, ...
'' on 19 December.


''Nomoi''


Content

The ''Nomoi ton Homeriton'' (Νόμοι των Όμηριτών, "Laws of the Homerites"), also known in Latin as ''Leges Homeritarum'', is usually regarded as a fictional law code containing some amount of authentic pre-Islamic South Arabian material. The laws are not arranged thematically, but may be subsumed under eight headings: (1) morals, marriage and family; (2) slavery; (3) right of employment; (4) culture and social life; (5) cruelty against animals; (6) rental laws; (7) officeholders; and (8) miscellaneous. Within the last class are laws concerning sorcery, poisoning, perjury, theft, extrajudicial punishments, infringing ecclesiastical asylum, workhouses for criminals and prohibitions on begging. The ''Nomoi'' do not come near to being a comprehensive law code. There is, for example, no law of inheritance. The ''Nomoi'' prescribes harsh punishments for transgressions, often mutilation, and mitigating factors are nowhere admitted. Its strong prohibitions of wife-beating and cruelty to animals stand out, however, since
Byzantine law Byzantine law was essentially a continuation of Roman law with increased Orthodox Christian and Hellenistic influence. Most sources define ''Byzantine law'' as the Roman legal traditions starting after the reign of Justinian I in the 6th century ...
knew no restriction on the treatment of animals. The laws seem concerned strictly with an urban community like Najrān. Administration and taxation are governed in a clearly Byzantine manner. The prohibitions on dancing, singing, gambling and gaming may be taken from the canons of the
Quinisext Council The Quinisext Council (; , literally meaning, ''Fifth-Sixth Meeting''), i.e., the Fifth-Sixth Council, often called the Council ''in Trullo'', Trullan Council, or the Penthekte Synod, was a church council held in 692 at Constantinople under Ju ...
(691/692). On the whole, the influence of
canon law Canon law (from , , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical jurisdiction, ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its membe ...
is limited, but Christian theological justifications are provided for the laws. Although the ''Nomoi'' is a civil law code, it presents itself as having been promulgated by a supernatural force to the '' geitoniarchai'' (administrators of Najrān's 36 districts). It bears the unmistakable stamp of a Christian monk of a strong ascetic spirit. In the words of
J. B. Bury John Bagnell Bury (; 16 October 1861 – 1 June 1927) was an Anglo-Irish historian, classical scholar, Medieval Roman historian and philologist. He objected to the label " Byzantinist" explicitly in the preface to the 1889 edition of his ''La ...
, the laws "illustrate the kind of legislation at which the ecclesiastical spirit, unchecked, would have aimed."


Date and authorship

The authenticity of the ''Nomoi'' was first put in doubt by Cardinal
Jean-Baptiste-François Pitra Jean-Baptiste-François Pitra, OSB (; 1 August 1812 – 9 February 1889) was a French Catholic cardinal, archaeologist and theologian. He was born in Champforgeuil. Joining the Benedictine Order, he entered the Abbey of Solesmes in 1842, and ...
in 1864. He was followed by many, including
Louis Duchesne Louis Marie Olivier Duchesne (; 13 September 1843 – 21 April 1922) was a French priest, philology, philologist, teacher and a critical historian of Christianity and Roman Catholic liturgy and institutions. Life Descended from a family of Bri ...
, but in 1969 Nina Pigulevskaya defended a 6th-century origin. She thought the code was written in the Byzantine Empire and never actually came into force in Ḥimyar.
Irfan Shahîd Irfan Arif Shahîd ( ; January 15, 1926 – November 9, 2016), also known as Erfan Arif Kawar ( ), was an American professor and scholar in the field of Oriental studies. Between 1982 and 2016, he was the Oman Professor of Arabic and Islamic Li ...
and A. K. Irvine have also defended the authenticity of the code.
Garth Fowden Garth Lowther Fowden, FBA (born 14 January 1953), is a historian. He was Sultan Qaboos Professor of Abrahamic Faiths at the University of Cambridge from 2013 to 2020. Career Born on 14 January 1953, Garth Fowden was educated at Merton College, ...
considers that it contains some authentic material. It mentions a slave market at a place called Trikanos or Trikanon, a place not attested anywhere else. Certain features of the ''Nomoi'' that would be unusual in 6th-century Byzantium have been ascribed to South Arabian influence. They may, however, reflect a later date of composition. Mutilation was an uncommon punishment in Byzantine law prior to
Leo III Leo III, Leon III, or Levon III may refer to: People * Leo III the Isaurian (685–741), Byzantine emperor 717–741 * Pope Leo III (d. 816), Pope 795–816 * Leon III of Abkhazia, King of Abkhazia 960–969 * Leo II, King of Armenia (c. 1236–128 ...
's ''Ecloga'' (741). One of the most unusual and cruel punishments in the ''Nomoi''—suspending a convict upside down and smoking him to death with burning hay—is actually attested in an 8th-century Byzantine source (
Nikephoros Nikephoros (), Nikiforos or Nicephorus is a Greek male name, meaning "Bringer of Victory", which was commonly used among the Byzantine Empire's aristocracy. It may refer to: Rulers * Nikephoros I Logothetes, Byzantine emperor 802–811 * Nikeph ...
's ''Breviarium''). Some prescriptions regarding marriage in the ''Nomoi'' became a part of Byzantine law during the reign
Leo VI Leo VI (or Leon VI, notably in Greek) may refer to : * Leo VI the Wise Leo VI, also known as Leo the Wise (; 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (although his paren ...
(886–912). Similarities between the Najrān of the ''Nomoi'' and Constantinople under the
Macedonian dynasty The Macedonian dynasty () Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty, ruled the Byzantine Empire from 867 to 1056, following the Byzantium under the Amorian dynasty, Amorian dynasty. During this period, the Byzantine state reached its greates ...
suggest that the ''Nomoi'' was probably written at Constantinople in the 10th century. The ''Nomoi'' may be compared with other pseudepigraphal texts of supposed supernatural origin from Byzantium, such as the ''
Didascalia Apostolorum ''Didascalia Apostolorum'', or just ''Didascalia'', is an early Christian legal treatise which belongs to the genre of the Church Orders. It presents itself as being written by the Twelve Apostles at the time of the Council of Jerusalem; however ...
'' and '' Letter of Christ Fallen from Heaven''. The earliest manuscript witness to the ''Nomoi'', a copy made in 1180 on
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
, shows some Western influence in its terminology. It is probable that it was copied from a manuscript made shortly before in Crusader Syria. Some of its terminology does not appear in Greek again until the '' Assizes of Cyprus'' in the 14th century.


''Dialexis''

The ''Dialexis'' purports to be a record written around 550 or 560 of a debate between Gregentios and a Jew named Herban that took place before the royal court of Ḥimyar around 520 or 530. The author does not claim to have been present or to have known Gregentios, but does claim to have had access to a record of the proceedings written at the time by the notary Palladios. The text, however, shows clear evidence of having been composed after the start of the controversies over
monothelitism Monothelitism, or monotheletism was a theological doctrine in Christianity that was proposed in the 7th century, but was ultimately rejected by the sixth ecumenical council. It held Christ as having only one will and was thus contrary to dyoth ...
(7th century),
iconoclasm Iconoclasm ()From . ''Iconoclasm'' may also be considered as a back-formation from ''iconoclast'' (Greek: εἰκοκλάστης). The corresponding Greek word for iconoclasm is εἰκονοκλασία, ''eikonoklasia''. is the social belie ...
(8th century) and the ''
filioque ( ; ), a Latin term meaning "and from the Son", was added to the original Nicene Creed, and has been the subject of great controversy between Eastern and Western Christianity. The term refers to the Son, Jesus Christ, with the Father, as th ...
'' clause, which only became a live controversy in the Byzantine Empire after 860.


Letters

There is a treatise against the Azymites in the form of a letter that is ascribed to Gregentios in one manuscript. Given the issue it discusses, it can have no connection to the time in which Gregentios supposedly lived. In 1660, some "letters of Gregentios"—possibly the same treatise—were catalogued as part of the library of
Denis Pétau Denis Pétau (21 August 158311 December 1652), also known as Dionysius Petavius, was a French Jesuit theologian. Life Pétau was born in Orléans, where he had his initial education; he then attended the University of Paris, where he successfully ...
that had been purchased after his death by Queen
Christina of Sweden Christina (; 18 December ld Style and New Style dates, O.S. 8 December1626 – 19 April 1689), a member of the House of Vasa, was Monarchy of Sweden, Queen of Sweden from 1632 until her abdication in 1654. Her conversion to Catholicism and ...
. There is no further record of these letters and they appear to be lost.


References


Bibliography

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