The great thrush (''Turdus fuscater'') is a species of

bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class (biology), class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the Oviparity, laying of Eggshell, hard-shelled eggs, a high Metabolism, metabolic rate, a fou ...

in the family

Turdidae The thrushes are a passerine bird family, Turdidae, with a worldwide distribution. The family was once much larger before biologists reclassified the former subfamily Saxicolinae, which includes the chats and European robins, as Old World flyca ...

. It is found in

Bolivia Bolivia, officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in central South America. The country features diverse geography, including vast Amazonian plains, tropical lowlands, mountains, the Gran Chaco Province, w ...

Colombia Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country primarily located in South America with Insular region of Colombia, insular regions in North America. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Venezuel ...

Ecuador Ecuador, officially the Republic of Ecuador, is a country in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. It also includes the Galápagos Province which contain ...

Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...

, and

Venezuela Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many Federal Dependencies of Venezuela, islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. It com ...

. It is considered as the largest thrush in South America. The great thrush's size distinguishes it from the several other uniform slaty-colored thrushes in its range. It inhabits subtropical or tropical moist

montane forest Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures lapse rate, fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is ...

s and high-altitude

shrubland Shrubland, scrubland, scrub, brush, or bush is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominance (ecology), dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbaceous plant, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally o ...

, but can also make use of degraded forest and urban areas.

Subspecies

Seven subspecies are recognized: * ''T. f. fuscater'' (d´Orbigny, Lafresnaye, 1837). The nominate subspecies can be found in west Bolivia. * ''T. f. cacozelus'' (Bangs, 1898). It can be found in the Santa Marta mountain range in Colombia. * ''T. f. clarus'' (Phelps, Phelps, 1953). Inhabits the frontier between Venezuela and Colombia, in the Sierra del Perijá. * ''T. f. quindio'' (Chapman, 1925). This subspecies is found in south Colombia and the north of Ecuador. * ''T. f. gigas'' (Fraser, 1841). It is native to the Andes mountains of Venezuela and Colombia. * ''T. f. gigantodes'' (Cabanis, 1873). It can be found from south Ecuador to central Peru. * ''T. f. ockendeni'' (Hellmayr, 1906). It can be found in southeast Peru.

Description

Adults are in length and weigh , averaging , making the species the largest member of the wide-ranging ''

Turdus ''Turdus'' is a genus of medium-sized mostly insectivorous or omnivorous birds in the wider thrush family, Turdidae. The genus name ''Turdus'' is Latin for 'thrush'. Most of the species are called thrushes; the term thrush is also used for man ...

'' genus, and one of the largest thrushes although the

Amami thrush The Amami thrush (''Zoothera major'') is a member of the thrush family Turdidae. It is endemic to the islands of Amami Ōshima and Kakeroma island in the northern Nansei Islands of Japan. Description This large, heavily patterned thrush is sim ...

and the

blue whistling thrush The blue whistling thrush (''Myophonus caeruleus'') is a bird in the Old World flycatchers family Muscicapidae that is found in the mountains of Central Asia, South Asia, China and Southeast Asia. It is known for its loud human-like whistling son ...

may match or exceed it in size. It can be easily identified by its yellowish-orange beak and legs and yellow ring around the eye. Slight

sexual dimorphism Sexual dimorphism is the condition where sexes of the same species exhibit different Morphology (biology), morphological characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most dioecy, di ...

is sometimes present, with males having more strongly coloured legs and eye rings. Tail feathers are long. The plumage is black-brown, darker on wings and tail and pale on the belly. Juveniles are predominantly greenish gray with a pale belly and some spots of buff colour on the head and wings. Subspecies show subtle differences in colouration, with ''T. f. ockendeni'' being the darkest one, followed by ''T. f. quindio'' and ''T .f. gigantodes.'' The palest subspecies are ''T. f. gigas'', ''T. f. cacozelus'' and ''T. f. fuscater.''

Albinistic Albinism is the congenital absence of melanin in an animal or plant resulting in white hair, feathers, scales and skin and reddish pink or blue eyes. Individuals with the condition are referred to as albinos. Varied use and interpretation of ...

specimens are known to exist but very rare.

Distribution and habitat

The species is a typical Andean highlands bird. Its range covers the

Andes The Andes ( ), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range (; ) are the List of longest mountain chains on Earth, longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range ...

in western and northern Venezuela as far as Lara and Trujillo, the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and finally, northwest Bolivia. It occurs at altitudes of 1800–4000 meters. The great thrush makes use of a variety of habitats, including open forest, backyards, parks, and even farmland with scattered trees or forest remnants. It also occurs at the edges of different classes of Andean forests, including humid montane, secondary and temperate forests. It is more likely to be found at altitudes above 2000 m. The species tends to avoid dry conditions and densely forested areas, but sometimes occurs on the edges of Andean

páramo Páramo () may refer to a variety of alpine tundra ecosystems located in the Andes Mountain Range, South America. Some ecologists describe the páramo broadly as "all high, tropical, montane vegetation above the continuous timberline". A narrower ...

or in shrublands. It commonly inhabits urban habitats in the highlands, e.g. in Quito and Bogota. Populations are generally sedentary.

Ecology

The great thrush is a generalist feeder, principally foraging for fruits and berries but also taking invertebrates and even stealing eggs and nestlings. It tends to swallow fruits whole. It generally feeds on ground level, preferentially in short grass, but also visits fruiting trees and shrubs. Activity peaks are at dawn and dusk. When flushed, flight distance is usually short. Adults become very territorial in the breeding season but can form groups of up to 40 individuals at other times of the year. It is probable that these groups form a communal perch in trees until the next breeding season comes. Breeding occurs at different times of the year depending on locality - March–April in Venezuela, January–August in Colombia, October in Ecuador, and February and June in Peru. The nest is comparatively large and cup-shaped, made of small twigs, leaves, grass, and mud, and placed low in trees or shrubs. The female lays two eggs of pale blue-greenish colour with reddish spots, with an average size of 2 cm.

Songs and vocalizations

The species has a diverse variety of vocalizations. The song is soft and melodious, only performed during the breeding season, just before sunrise. It is characterized by quick and varied musical phrases ending in a very high note. When flushed or surprised, a short "keert" or a series of "kurt-kurt-kurt-kurt" are uttered. The bird can also perform a large and loud "kweep".

Conservation status

The great thrush is common in a variety of habitats throughout its wide range and has been classified as

Least Concern A least-concern species is a species that has been evaluated and categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as not being a focus of wildlife conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wil ...

by the

IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status ...

. The species readily adapts to anthropogenic disturbances and can make use of urban, deforested or agricultural areas.

References

Bibliography

* Carrión, Juan Manuel (2002). ''Aves de Quito, retratos y encuentros''. Quito: SIMBIOE * Clement, Peter; Hathway, Ren; Byers, Clive; Wilezur, Jan (2000). ''Thrushes''. London: A&C Black Publishers * del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Cristie, David. eds. (2005). ''Handbook of the Birds of the World.'' Vol. 10. Cuckoo-shrikes to Thrushes. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions * Hilty, Steven; Brown, William; Tudor, Guy (2001). ''Guía de la Aves de Colombia''. Bogota: American Bird Conservancy * Ridgely, Robert; Greenfield, Paul (2001). ''The Birds of Ecuador. Field Guide.'' Ithaca: Cornell University Press * Ridgely, Robert; Greenfield, Paul (2001). ''The Birds of Ecuador. Status, Distribution, and Taxonomy.'' Ithaca: Cornell University Press * Ridgely, Robert; Tudor, Guy (1989). ''The Birds of South America''. Austin: University of Texas Press {{Taxonbar, from=Q1067396

great thrush The great thrush (''Turdus fuscater'') is a species of bird in the family Turdidae. It is found in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. It is considered as the largest thrush in South America. The great thrush's size distinguishes it ...

Birds of the Northern Andes

Taxonomy articles created by Polbot