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Gongsun Hong (公孫弘;
Wade–Giles Wade–Giles ( ) is a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese. It developed from the system produced by Thomas Francis Wade during the mid-19th century, and was given completed form with Herbert Giles's '' A Chinese–English Dictionary'' ...
: Kung-sun Hung; 200 – 7 April 121 BCE) was a senior official in the
Western Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring in ...
under Emperor Wu. Together with the more famous
Confucian Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, or way of life. Founded by Confucius ...
scholar
Dong Zhongshu Dong Zhongshu (; 179–104 BC) was a Chinese philosopher, politician, and writer of the Han dynasty. He is traditionally associated with the promotion of Confucianism as the official ideology of the Chinese imperial state, favoring heaven worsh ...
, Gongsun was one of the earliest proponents of Confucianism, setting in motion its emergence under the Han court. The ideals and decrees both promoted would come to be seen as values-in-themselves, becoming the "basic elements, or even hallmarks" of Confucianism, although not necessarily officially during his lifetime. While first proposed and more ardently promoted by Dong, the national academy and
Imperial examination The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...
, then considered radical, did not come into existence until they were supported by the more successful Gongsun. Their establishment set a precedent that would last into the twentieth century. Gongsun was born in
Zichuan The Zichuan District () is one of eight divisions within the city of Zibo in the People's Republic of China, Chinese province of Shandong. As the largest district of Zibo, it is composed of an urban area of over 23 square kilometers,Kingdom of Lu, part of present-day
Shandong province Shandong is a coastal province in East China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural and religious center ...
. Beginning his political career at age sixty, he rapidly advanced from commoner to attain a senior appointment in 130BC when he was seventy, becoming grand secretary and 'censor-in-chief' in 126, and chancellor in 124. One of the Three Dukes, in recognition of canonical mastery he was probably the first Han Confucian to be appointed to high office, the first commoner and first (and only, out of twelve of the time) Confucian to be made
chancellor Chancellor () is a title of various official positions in the governments of many countries. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the (lattice work screens) of a basilica (court hall), which separa ...
, as well as the first chancellor to be made
marquis A marquess (; ) is a nobleman of high hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The German-language equivalent is Markgraf (margrave). A woman with the rank of a marquess or the wife (or wido ...
. He set a precedent for Confucianism as interpreter of portents. According to the Xijing Zaji, he was the author of the Gong-Sun Zi, a work on Xing-Ming. The
Book of Han The ''Book of Han'' is a history of China finished in 111 CE, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. The work was composed by Ban Gu (32–92 CE), ...
also listed a work called Gongsun Hong. With one passage quoted by the Taiping Yulan, the work was likely still extant in the tenth century but is now lost.


Background

Preceding emperors, being more aligned with Huang-Lao, had instituted a policy of general non-interference with the people, reducing tax and other burdens, promoting government thrift and reducing criminal sentences. A major issue however was the power of collateral princes within the imperial clan, who often built up their own military strengths, resisting edicts issued by the emperor. Emperor Wen's time saw the Lü Clan Disturbance, but he did not take any decisive, overarching action. His successor Emperor Jing managed to crush a revolt of the princes, who were thereafter denied rights to appoint ministers for their fiefs, but their power persisted.
Sima Qian Sima Qian () was a Chinese historian during the early Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for the ''Shiji'' (sometimes translated into English as ''Records of the Grand Historian''), a general history of China cov ...
states Gongsun's background as that of a prison officer, who being dismissed, made his living as a farmhand tending pigs. The
Shiji The ''Shiji'', also known as ''Records of the Grand Historian'' or ''The Grand Scribe's Records'', is a Chinese historical text that is the first of the Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was written during the late 2nd and early 1st cen ...
characterizes both Gongsun and
Dong Zhongshu Dong Zhongshu (; 179–104 BC) was a Chinese philosopher, politician, and writer of the Han dynasty. He is traditionally associated with the promotion of Confucianism as the official ideology of the Chinese imperial state, favoring heaven worsh ...
as specializing in the
Spring and Autumn Annals The ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' is an ancient Chinese chronicle that has been one of the core Chinese classics since ancient times. ''The Annals'' is the official chronicle of the State of Lu, and covers a 242-year period from 722 to 481&nbs ...
, giving Gongsun a primary interest in the Chunqiu Guliang Biography as a commentary on the annals. The Shiji and
Hanshu The ''Book of Han'' is a history of China finished in 111 CE, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. The work was composed by Ban Gu (32–92 CE), ...
otherwise attribute to him a bent toward the
Gongyang Zhuan The ''Gongyang Zhuan'', also known as the ''Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals'' or the ''Commentary of Gongyang'', is a commentary on the '' Spring and Autumn Annals'', and is thus one of the Chinese classics. Along with the '' Z ...
commentaries, as a disciple of Huwu Zidu, reportedly attending an instruction on the Gongyang under him in the Qi state, when Huwu himself was old. In contrast to the Shiji, the Hanshu takes him as more interested in the Gongyang. However, neither text is referenced in any of Gongsun's documents, and his actions don't seem to reflect the Gongyang. His family being poor, he did not learn much of the Annals until he was forty, and the Shiji considers his ability secondary to that of Dong Zhongshu. Although Gongsun discussed the finer points of the
Mandate of Heaven The Mandate of Heaven ( zh, t=天命, p=Tiānmìng, w=, l=Heaven's command) is a Chinese ideology#Political ideologies, political ideology that was used in History of China#Ancient China, Ancient China and Chinese Empire, Imperial China to legit ...
with the Emperor, he espoused that heaven was not partial towards its servants.


Appointment speech in the

Shiji The ''Shiji'', also known as ''Records of the Grand Historian'' or ''The Grand Scribe's Records'', is a Chinese historical text that is the first of the Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was written during the late 2nd and early 1st cen ...

Gongsun probably first expressed his views in 134 B.C. after the death of the Daoistic
Empress Dowager Empress dowager (also dowager empress or empress mother; ) is the English language translation of the title given to the mother or widow of a monarch, especially in regards to Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese monarchs in the Chines ...
, in response to a request by the
Emperor Wu of Han Emperor Wu of Han (156 – 29 March 87BC), born Liu Che and courtesy name Tong, was the seventh Emperor of China, emperor of the Han dynasty from 141 to 87 BC. His reign lasted 54 years – a record not broken until the reign of the Kangxi ...
for governmental advice. He applied to an advanced position in government through court examination. His discourse included ideas from
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
, administrative philosophy ( Chinese Legalism) and
Mohism Mohism or Moism (, ) was an ancient Chinese philosophy of ethics and logic, rational thought, and scientific technology developed by the scholars who studied under the ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi (), embodied in an eponymous book: the '' ...
; namely, that capable people ought to be employed in positions that match their talents (
Shen Buhai Shen Buhai (; ) was a Chinese statesman, reformer and diplomat. According to the Shiji, Shen Buhai served as Chancellor of the Han state under Marquis Zhao of Han, for around fifteen years to his natural death in office in 337 BC, ordering it ...
and
Han Fei Han Fei (233 BC), also known as Han Feizi, was a Chinese Legalist philosopher and statesman during the Warring States period. He was a prince of the state of Han. Han Fei is often considered the greatest representative of Legalism for th ...
); secondly, encouraging high standards of morality, harmonious relationships, and employing moral persons (Both Confucianism and Mohism advocate this); and that common people should be allowed opportunity for farming while discouraging useless articles (Mohism and
Shang Yang Shang Yang (; c. 390 – 338 BC), also known as Wei Yang () and originally surnamed Gongsun, was a Politician, statesman, chancellor and reformer of the Qin (state), State of Qin. Arguably the "most famous and most influential statesman of the ...
). Referring to a typical golden age of the remote past in which the populace was naturally good, reminiscent of Lu Jia and Jia Yi, Gongsun's speech to the court derides the practice of the Qin (that is, its penalties) as inadequate, stressing the Confucian values of sincerity, humaneness (ren), righteousness (yi), and moderation (li), but also intellectual judgement (zhi) as the means of effective authority. In what may have been the first time in history he evoked the Duke of Zhou (
Zhou Gong Dan, Duke Wen of Zhou, commonly known as the Duke of Zhou, was a member of the royal family of the early Zhou dynasty who played a major role in consolidating the kingdom established by his elder brother King Wu. He was renowned for acting as ...
) in his argument. As an influence on the basics of Confucianism, his stress on guidance through music (which Dong also stressed), li, and the habits of living is notable, while on the other hand he lacked Dong's cosmology. Following this Sima Qian portrays him as giving a thinly veiled discourse on the "fundamentals of government" drawn seemingly straight from the
Han Feizi The ''Han Feizi'' () is an ancient Chinese text attributed to the Chinese Legalism, Legalist political philosopher Han Fei. It comprises a selection of essays in the Legalist tradition, elucidating theories of state power, and synthesizing the m ...
(see Chapter 43), referring to the techniques (Shu) of government (associated with
Shen Buhai Shen Buhai (; ) was a Chinese statesman, reformer and diplomat. According to the Shiji, Shen Buhai served as Chancellor of the Han state under Marquis Zhao of Han, for around fifteen years to his natural death in office in 337 BC, ordering it ...
): recommending firm personal control of the government, and "monopolization of the handles which control life" (
Han Feizi The ''Han Feizi'' () is an ancient Chinese text attributed to the Chinese Legalism, Legalist political philosopher Han Fei. It comprises a selection of essays in the Legalist tradition, elucidating theories of state power, and synthesizing the m ...
's Chapter 7 The Two Handles, including a rewards and punishment doctrine like Shang Yang). His discourse was rated low by the Ceremonial Superintendent, but among the top by the Emperor; though it may have been simple compared with Dong's,
Sima Qian Sima Qian () was a Chinese historian during the early Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for the ''Shiji'' (sometimes translated into English as ''Records of the Grand Historian''), a general history of China cov ...
writes that it was still very elegant.


Xiongnu Envoy and Imperial academy

According to
Sima Qian Sima Qian () was a Chinese historian during the early Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for the ''Shiji'' (sometimes translated into English as ''Records of the Grand Historian''), a general history of China cov ...
, beginning his diplomatic career at age sixty, Gongsun was sent as an envoy to the
Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of Nomad, nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese historiography, Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, t ...
(northern nomadic confederation). He resigned "because of illness" when his opinion on the matter differed from that of ( Emperor Wu), but was brought back on general consensus despite Gongsun's reluctance. Thereafter he rarely disagreed with the emperor openly. At first arguing against it, he argued for Zhufu Yan's proposal for the development of the
Shuofang Shuofang () was an ancient Chinese commandery, situated in the Hetao region in modern-day Inner Mongolia near Baotou. First founded by Emperor Wu of Han in the wake of the successful reconquest of the area from Xiongnu tribes, it was dissolved d ...
commandery In the Middle Ages, a commandery (rarely commandry) was the smallest administrative division of the European landed properties of a military order. It was also the name of the house where the knights of the commandery lived.Anthony Luttrell and G ...
(a defensive position against the Xiongnu) at the expense of efforts to the south, only eventually succeeding. As memorialized in Sima Qian's ''The Collected Biographies of Ru'' (which he did not necessarily write himself), Gongsun Hong recommended that highly talented young men be selected to train at an imperial academy. They would be assigned to entry-level positions based on their study of the
Five Classics The Four Books and Five Classics are authoritative and important books associated with Confucianism, written before 300 BC. They are traditionally believed to have been either written, edited or commented by Confucius or one of his disciples. S ...
. Sima Qian more generally would appear to despise Gongsun, regarding the Confucians following him into office sarcastically. Despite this, the document states that one then found literate and refined men within the bureaucracy. However, although they would find themselves to a variety of posts during the reign of Emperor Wu, the document itself would appear idealist, with the hope that they could become rich based on their studies. Their ascent would not appear to have been easy, with only two high-ranking officials from the academy on record by name. The Confucians themselves still disadvantaged, most high officials at the time still inherited their posts. Future Confucians would retroactively reconstruct the Confucian community as having flourished under Emperor Wu's reign.Joachim Gentz 2015 p107. Ideology of Power and Power of Ideology in Early China * https://books.google.com/books?id=PiRACgAAQBAJ&pg=PA107


Zhang Tang collaboration

Having begun his career as a scholar appointed for his knowledge of the
Five Classics The Four Books and Five Classics are authoritative and important books associated with Confucianism, written before 300 BC. They are traditionally believed to have been either written, edited or commented by Confucius or one of his disciples. S ...
, and only later arriving at the legal, Gongsun would embellish the later with the former, greatly pleasing the emperor. Often mentioned together in the
Shiji The ''Shiji'', also known as ''Records of the Grand Historian'' or ''The Grand Scribe's Records'', is a Chinese historical text that is the first of the Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was written during the late 2nd and early 1st cen ...
, Gongsun sang the praises of legal clerk Zhang Tang, whose policies needed legitimation, thereby strengthening each other's positions. Professor Griet Vankeerberghen refers to both Gongsun and Zhang as "quasi- Legalist bureaucrats". They instituted a law along the lines of
Shang Yang Shang Yang (; c. 390 – 338 BC), also known as Wei Yang () and originally surnamed Gongsun, was a Politician, statesman, chancellor and reformer of the Qin (state), State of Qin. Arguably the "most famous and most influential statesman of the ...
that punished those with knowledge of a crime that failed to report it, or slandered prosecutors. According to the Taiping Yulan, Gongsun also wrote a highly valuable book on Xing-Ming (personnel selection), a doctrine of
Shen Buhai Shen Buhai (; ) was a Chinese statesman, reformer and diplomat. According to the Shiji, Shen Buhai served as Chancellor of the Han state under Marquis Zhao of Han, for around fifteen years to his natural death in office in 337 BC, ordering it ...
and
Han Fei Han Fei (233 BC), also known as Han Feizi, was a Chinese Legalist philosopher and statesman during the Warring States period. He was a prince of the state of Han. Han Fei is often considered the greatest representative of Legalism for th ...
, that may have been extant as late as the tenth century. Servicing the emperor's wishes, they brought the government under tight central control, promoting an autocratic style of government. Eliminating their enemies through execution or transfer, they began what may be termed a political revolution putting a temporary end to group interests in the court, consolidating it with the death of
Liu An Liú Ān (, c. 179–122 BC) was a Chinese cartographer, monarch, and philosopher. A Han dynasty Chinese prince, ruling the Huainan Kingdom, and an advisor to his nephew, Emperor Wu of Han (武帝). He is best known for editing the (139 BC) ''Hu ...
in Huainan. The demotion of their enemy Ji An is notable, as a powerful representative of the Huang-Lao tradition favouring rich families. Drawing them as infringing on the Emperor's prerogatives and authority, Gongsun implies a comparison between the luxurious indulgence of Ji An's ilk to that of
Guan Zhong Guan Zhong (; c. 720–645 BC) was a Chinese philosopher and politician. He served as chancellor and was a reformer of the State of Qi during the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. His given name was Yiwu (). ''Zhong'' was his courtes ...
as usurping the prerogatives of his lord – and is approved. In connection with this Gongsun wore plain clothes and ate plain food, as if to place himself on footing with minor officials or the people. Other cases include Gongsun recommending the corrupt Zhufu Yan for execution (though Gongsun may have been covetous of his favour with the Emperor), and that the harsh official Ning Cheng not be appointed to government office, with the emperor making the latter commandant. Gongsun died of natural causes only a year after the Huainan trials. His son inherited his rank, becoming Grand Administrator of
Zhejiang ) , translit_lang1_type2 = , translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese) , image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg , image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains , image_map = Zhejiang i ...
, but lost it in a trial. Sima Qian states that he was replaced by Li Ts'ai.


Dong Zhongshu

While
Dong Zhongshu Dong Zhongshu (; 179–104 BC) was a Chinese philosopher, politician, and writer of the Han dynasty. He is traditionally associated with the promotion of Confucianism as the official ideology of the Chinese imperial state, favoring heaven worsh ...
did not attain high office, the
Hanshu The ''Book of Han'' is a history of China finished in 111 CE, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. The work was composed by Ban Gu (32–92 CE), ...
records state that his career was still distinguished through the same call to service as Gongsun Hong. In the legendarium of the
Hanshu The ''Book of Han'' is a history of China finished in 111 CE, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. The work was composed by Ban Gu (32–92 CE), ...
, collecting Dong's interpretation of Confucian texts from the very beginning of his employment, despite banishing him, Gongsun is said to have preferred his teachings to that of a now largely unknown Scholar Jiang of Xiaqiu. Gongsun's speech acquired him the title of academician, leading Dong to claims that he attained high office from the autocratic Emperor through flattery, for which Gongsun would be characterized as "hating" him. Gongsun is said to have tried hard to sideline Dong, and would ultimately see his banishing, probably between 126-121BC, with the statement that he was the only person suited to be chancellor of Jiaoxi.
Ban Gu Ban Gu (AD32–92) was a Chinese historian, poet, and politician best known for his part in compiling the ''Book of Han'', the second of China's 24 dynastic histories. He also wrote a number of '' fu'', a major literary form, part prose ...
, at least as representative of the Hanshu, repeatedly asserts Gongsun as responsible for Dong's banishment to Jiaoxi, as well as the death of Zhufu Yan. Greatly admired by Liu Xiang, Dong had general interest in the problems of government, including taxes, agriculture and the Xiongnu. However, he would later face the death penalty, from which he was reprieved, so that he could only serve in an advisory role. Despite his Confucian legacy, he was not considered an intellectual leader even into the era of the Qing dynasty.
Michael Loewe Michael Arthur Nathan Loewe (2 November 1922 – 1 January 2025) was a British historian, Sinologist, and writer who authored dozens of books, articles, and other publications in the fields of Classical Chinese as well as the history of ancien ...
notes a considerable lapse of time between Dong's proposals and their implementation. Thus, although Gongsun himself 'unofficially' banished Dong, there is little to suppose his policy suggestions as repeated by his contemporaries, or otherwise adopted, except where Gongsun himself promoted them. By making Dong chancellor of
Weifang Weifang ( zh, s=潍坊, t=濰坊, p=Wéifāng) is a prefecture-level city in central Shandong province, People's Republic of China. The city borders Dongying to the northwest, Zibo to the west, Linyi to the southwest, Rizhao to the south, Qingdao ...
, Gongsun effectively prompted Dong's partial retirement from political life, but would seem to have paved the way for an appropriation and replacement of his proposals with more elaborate ones. Dong's proposals for training officials were only followed through due to Gongsun. Dong was responsible for some recruitment into the bureaucracy, but was not very successful at it. His efforts would be overtaken by Gongsun, but can be credited for initial input in decrees and ideals that would become the "basic elements or hallmarks" of Confucianism.


Legacy

Contrary to Zhang Tang, who promoted his subordinates, Gongsun made no use of his position to advance other Confucians, and likely did not identify with the Confucian community, not hesitating to drive them from office.
Michael Loewe Michael Arthur Nathan Loewe (2 November 1922 – 1 January 2025) was a British historian, Sinologist, and writer who authored dozens of books, articles, and other publications in the fields of Classical Chinese as well as the history of ancien ...
states that, though regarded as one of the most respected statesmen, he was actually considered somewhat old-fashioned. Despite his political orientation, because he insisted on the value of trust over either law, rewards or penalties, Professor Griet Vankeerberghen considers Gongsun still reminiscent of Huang-Lao ideology like that of the Daoistic
Huainanzi The ''Huainanzi'' is an ancient Chinese text made up of essays from scholarly debates held at the court of Liu An, Prince of Huainan, before 139 BCE. Compiled as a handbook for an enlightened sovereign and his court, the work attempts to defi ...
, the book of his opponents. Although not speaking particularly negatively of him,
Sinologist Sinology, also referred to as China studies, is a subfield of area studies or East Asian studies involved in social sciences and humanities research on China. It is an academic discipline that focuses on the study of the Chinese civilizatio ...
Herrlee G. Creel Herrlee Glessner Creel (January 19, 1905June 1, 1994) was an American Sinologist and philosopher who specialized in Chinese philosophy and history, and a professor of Chinese at the University of Chicago for nearly 40 years. A prolific author, on ...
considered him largely a figurehead Confucian for the justification of Emperor Wu's despotic rule, Gongsun being a "good deal 'Legalist'" himself; the men Wu actually listened to were in finance, criminal law, military affairs etc. However, Vankeerberghen considers Gongsun to have promoted the virtues of frugality, modesty and incorruptibility, which might be said to have faded into the background. Pledging allegiance to the Emperor, he was innovative in defining absolutism in moral terms, espousing a conception of loyalty at odds with the times, and new standards of conduct to go with it. Following Gongsun, scholars "took to supporting monarchical power", he and Zhang Tang achieving "nothing less than a tilting of the axis of the conventional moral compass toward a more legal-centric orientation." Before Gongsun the selection of officials depended mainly on the judgment of senior officials, and the injunctions of the Emperor, though still referencing character. Only seven percent of officials at the time were Confucian. Gongsun's rapid rise would be celebrated as its success, but apart from attracting opportunists to Confucianism, also saw the ideas of " Chinese Legalism" work their way into Confucianism, and those espousing "Legalist" policies counted among their ranks. Many were willing to follow Gongsun, while notable contemporaries like Dong Zhongshu, Ji An and historiographer
Sima Qian Sima Qian () was a Chinese historian during the early Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for the ''Shiji'' (sometimes translated into English as ''Records of the Grand Historian''), a general history of China cov ...
called him and Zhang Tang flatterers and deceitful hypocrites, Gongsun receiving high salary while wearing simple clothes, and appearing lenient while inwardly uncompromising ("a suspicious man, outwardly magnanimous but inwardly scheming... he pretended to be friendly but repaid all wrongs" -Sima Qian), and accused him of subverting Confucianism. If nothing else, Gongsun could easily be said to have manipulated the legal system, and generally, did not openly state his own opinion in court (though these could hardly be considered particular to him). Whatever the case, both lived frugal, if not charitable lives and established new standards of conduct. Though utilizing his virtues to further his career, Gongsun was said to be proficient, meticulous, yielding and filial. He was praised for giving away, at times, most of his salary to fellow scholars, to the point of having little left over for his family, only revealing this to the court at the charge of Ji An. After failing to suppress the rebellion in Huainan due to illness he accepted Ji An's criticism of hypocrisy. While Sima states that Gongsun considered himself to have died without achieving merit, the early Later Han historian
Ban Gu Ban Gu (AD32–92) was a Chinese historian, poet, and politician best known for his part in compiling the ''Book of Han'', the second of China's 24 dynastic histories. He also wrote a number of '' fu'', a major literary form, part prose ...
considered him to have outstanding ability.
Sinologist Sinology, also referred to as China studies, is a subfield of area studies or East Asian studies involved in social sciences and humanities research on China. It is an academic discipline that focuses on the study of the Chinese civilizatio ...
Homer H. Dubs considered him "admirable in personal conduct, able in disputation, capable in legal matters, and an ornament to scholarship", while Tu Weiming calls him and Dong the heirs of
Shusun Tong Shusun Tong (; died ca 188 BCE) was a Chinese politician and writer who served the Qin and Western Han courts. He is known for organization of the first court worship for the Emperor Gaozu of Han (202 BCE), as well as for the custody over the yo ...
.


Notes


References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Authority control 200 BC births 121 BC deaths 2nd-century BC Chinese writers Chinese Confucianists 2nd-century BC Chinese philosophers Han dynasty government officials