Glaciokarst is a

geological Geology (). is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical objects, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth s ...

term that refers to a specific type of

karst landscape Karst () is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone and Dolomite (rock), dolomite. It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. Ther ...

that has been influenced significantly by past glacial activity. Karst landscapes consist of distinctive surface and subsurface landforms. These landforms are a result of the dissolution of

soluble In chemistry, solubility is the ability of a substance, the solute, to form a solution with another substance, the solvent. Insolubility is the opposite property, the inability of the solute to form such a solution. The extent of the solubi ...

rocks like

limestone Limestone is a type of carbonate rock, carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material Lime (material), lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different Polymorphism (materials science) ...

gypsum Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate Hydrate, dihydrate, with the chemical formula . It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main constituent in many forms of plaster, drywall and blackboard or sidewalk ...

or dolomite by water. In the case of glaciokarst, the karst landscape has been shaped by the action of glaciers resulting in

glacial erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as Surface runoff, water flow or wind) that removes soil, Rock (geology), rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust#Crust, Earth's crust and then sediment transport, tran ...

, deposition or other processes that directly impact the soluble rocks in the area. Examples of glaciokarst landscapes are found in the Western Alps or the

Eastern Alps The Eastern Alps are usually defined as the area east of a line from Lake Constance and the Alpine Rhine valley, up to the Splügen Pass at the Main chain of the Alps, Alpine divide, and down the Liro (Como), Liro River to Lake Como in the south. ...

such as Tennengebirge,

Dachstein Mountains The Dachstein Mountains () are a mountain range in the Northern Limestone Alps. The term is used by the Austrian Alpine Club in its classification of the Eastern Alps as one of the 24 sub-ranges of the Northern Limestone Alps (AVE No. 14). The ...

and the

Altai Mountains The Altai Mountains (), also spelled Altay Mountains, are a mountain range in Central Asia, Central and East Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan converge, and where the rivers Irtysh and Ob River, Ob have their headwaters. The ...

Formation of glaciokarst

Glaciokarst landscapes form through interactions between ice and certain types of rock, like

, or dolomite, that are able to dissolve in water. When glaciers move over the land, they shape it by carving valleys and other glacial features. As it acquires carbon dioxide, meltwater from these glaciers forms a weak acid that can dissolve these specific rocks, eventually leading to cave formation. Over time, the combination of glacial sculpting and rock dissolution produces distinct landforms such as sinkholes and caves within the regions affected by

glacier A glacier (; or ) is a persistent body of dense ice, a form of rock, that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires ...

s. Velež Mountain provides an example of glaciokarst where karstic terrain has been significantly affected by glacial processes during the

Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( ; referred to colloquially as the ''ice age, Ice Age'') is the geological epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was fin ...

epoch. This landscape includes valley glaciers and a plateau glacier, primarily located on the northern slopes. The northern slopes exhibit features shaped by glacial erosion, presenting

cirque A (; from the Latin word ) is an amphitheatre-like valley formed by Glacier#Erosion, glacial erosion. Alternative names for this landform are corrie (from , meaning a pot or cauldron) and ; ). A cirque may also be a similarly shaped landform a ...

s, pavements, and roche moutonnées covered with small-scale karst features while in the lower regions of the Velež Mountain, significant moraine ridges, lateral moraines, breach-lobe moraines, and smaller recessional moraines formed, varying in their composition and height. The absence of valley discharge and the presence of indicators of glacial erosion hint at a pattern of vertical drainage of sub-glacial waters into the karst landscape. The outwash fans that filled some hollow areas displayed a change in the kind of sediment they contained, from rough near the ice margin to finer material further away.

Characteristics of glaciokarst

Glaciokarst landscapes have an array of unique features resulting from the fusion of glacial and karstic processes. Typical features found in glaciokarst landscapes may include glacially carved valleys, sinkholes formed by the dissolution of bedrock, and ice-contact features. Glaciokarsts encompass various classifications based on multiple criteria. These classifications include distinctions regarding the presence of meltwater, the types of karstic rocks involved, proximity to the Equator, the relationship between glaciers and karst formations, the geographical location of the glaciokarsts, and the rate of

glaciation A glacial period (alternatively glacial or glaciation) is an interval of time (thousands of years) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the other hand, are periods of warmer climate be ...

. Glaciokarsts are predominantly composed of

but can also form on

marble Marble is a metamorphic rock consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonly calcite (CaCO3) or Dolomite (mineral), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) that have recrystallized under the influence of heat and pressure. It has a crystalline texture, and is ty ...

, dolomite, and

. Structurally, they are categorized into Alpine or continental types, and

geosyncline A geosyncline (originally called a geosynclinal) is an obsolete geology, geological concept to explain orogeny, orogens, which was developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, before the theory of plate tectonics was envisaged.#Sengor1982, ...

or tabular types. They can exist in marine or terrestrial environments, each with varying levels of precipitation and ice cover impacting the karst formations. The interaction between the processes of

and karstification can create intriguing geological formations and landscapes.

References

{{Periglacial environment Glacial landforms Karst Pleistocene geology Dinaric Alps Dinaric karst formations Karst formations of Bosnia and Herzegovina Glacial erosion landforms