Saturniidae, members of which are commonly named the saturniids, is a

family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) or lepidopterans is an order (biology), order of winged insects which includes butterflies and moths. About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera have been described, representing 10% of the total described species of living organ ...

with an estimated 2,300 described

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

. The family contains some of the largest species of

moth Moths are a group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not Butterfly, butterflies. They were previously classified as suborder Heterocera, but the group is Paraphyly, paraphyletic with respect to butterflies (s ...

s in the world. Notable members include the emperor moths, royal moths, and giant silk moths (or wild silk moths). Adults are characterized by large, lobed

wings A wing is a type of fin that produces both lift and drag while moving through air. Wings are defined by two shape characteristics, an airfoil section and a planform. Wing efficiency is expressed as lift-to-drag ratio, which compares the bene ...

, heavy

bodies Bodies may refer to: Literature * ''Bodies'' (comics), a 2014–2015 Vertigo Comics detective fiction series * ''Bodies'' (novel), a 2002 novel by Jed Mercurio * ''Bodies'', a 1977 play by James Saunders * ''Bodies'', a 2009 book by Susie Orba ...

covered in hair-like

scales Scale or scales may refer to: Mathematics * Scale (descriptive set theory), an object defined on a set of points * Scale (ratio), the ratio of a linear dimension of a model to the corresponding dimension of the original * Scale factor, a number ...

, and reduced mouthparts. They lack a

frenulum A frenulum or frenum (: frenula or frena, from the Latin ''frēnulum'', "little bridle", the diminutive of ''frēnum'') is a small fold of tissue that secures the motion of a mobile organ in the body. In human anatomy Frenula on the human ...

, but the hindwings overlap the forewings to produce the effect of an unbroken wing surface. Saturniids are sometimes brightly colored and often have translucent eyespots or "windows" on their wings.

Sexual dimorphism Sexual dimorphism is the condition where sexes of the same species exhibit different Morphology (biology), morphological characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most dioecy, di ...

varies by species, but males can generally be distinguished by their larger, broader antennae. Most adults have

wingspan The wingspan (or just span) of a bird or an airplane is the distance from one wingtip to the opposite wingtip. For example, the Boeing 777–200 has a wingspan of , and a wandering albatross (''Diomedea exulans'') caught in 1965 had a wingsp ...

s between , but some tropical species such as the Atlas moth (''

Attacus atlas ''Attacus atlas'', the Atlas moth, is a large Saturniidae, saturniid moth endemic to the forests of Asia. The species was described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae''. The Atlas mo ...

'') may have wingspans up to . Together with certain

Noctuidae The Noctuidae, commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms, are a family (biology), family of moths. Taxonomically, they are considered the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea because many of the clades are constantly ...

, Saturniidae contains the largest Lepidoptera and some of the largest

extant Extant or Least-concern species, least concern is the opposite of the word extinct. It may refer to: * Extant hereditary titles * Extant literature, surviving literature, such as ''Beowulf'', the oldest extant manuscript written in English * Exta ...

insect Insects (from Latin ') are Hexapoda, hexapod invertebrates of the class (biology), class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (Insect morphology#Head, head, ...

Distribution

The majority of saturniid species occur in wooded

tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the equator, where the sun may shine directly overhead. This contrasts with the temperate or polar regions of Earth, where the Sun can never be directly overhead. This is because of Earth's ax ...

subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones immediately to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Ge ...

regions, with the greatest diversity in the New World tropics and

Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...

, though they are found all over the world. About 12 described species live in Europe, one of which, the

emperor moth The Saturniinae or saturniines are a subfamily of the family Saturniidae, also known as giant silkmoths. They are commonly known as emperor moths or wild silk moths. They are easily spotted by the eyespots on the upper surface of their wings. So ...

, occurs in the

British Isles The British Isles are an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner Hebrides, Inner and Outer Hebr ...

, and 68 described species live in North America, 42 of which reside north of Mexico and

Southern California Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and Cultural area, cultural List of regions of California, region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. Its densely populated coastal reg ...

Life cycle

Some saturniids are strictly

univoltine Voltinism is a term used in biology to indicate the number of broods or generations of an organism in a year. The term is most often applied to insects, and is particularly in use in sericulture, where silkworm varieties vary in their voltinism. ...

, producing only one generation a year, whereas others are multivoltine, producing more than one brood a year. Spring and summer broods eclose in a matter of weeks; autumn broods enter a state known as

diapause In animal dormancy, diapause is the delay in development in response to regular and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions.Tauber, M.J., Tauber, C.A., Masaki, S. (1986) ''Seasonal Adaptations of Insects''. Oxford University Press It ...

and emerge the following spring. How the pupae know when to eclose early or hibernate is not yet fully understood, though research suggests day length during the fifth larval

instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'' 'form, likeness') is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, which occurs between each moult (''ecdysis'') until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to ...

plays a major role, as well as cooling temperatures. Longer days may prompt pupae to develop early, while shorter days result in pupal diapause. The number of broods is flexible, and a single female may produce both fast-developing and slow-developing individuals, or they may produce different numbers of broods in different years or parts of the range. In some species, the spring and summer broods look different from each other; for example, the two

Saturniinae The Saturniinae or saturniines are a subfamily of the family Saturniidae, also known as giant silkmoths. They are commonly known as emperor moths or wild silk moths. They are easily spotted by the eyespots on the upper surface of their wings. S ...

species '' Actias luna'' (the luna moth) and '' Callosamia securifera'' both have certain genes which may or may not be activated depending upon differences in environmental conditions.

Eggs

Depending on the moth, a single female may lay up to 200 eggs on a chosen

host A host is a person responsible for guests at an event or for providing hospitality during it. Host may also refer to: Places * Host, Pennsylvania, a village in Berks County * Host Island, in the Wilhelm Archipelago, Antarctica People * ...

plant. Others are laid singly or in small groups. They are round, slightly flattened, smooth, and translucent or whitish.

Larvae

Saturniid

caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder ...

s are large (50 to 100 mm in the final instar), stout, and cylindrical. Most have tubercules that are often also spiny or hairy. Many are cryptic in coloration, with

countershading Countershading, or Thayer's law, is a method of camouflage in which animal coloration, an animal's coloration is darker on the top or upper side and lighter on the underside of the body. This pattern is found in many species of mammals, reptile ...

disruptive coloration Disruptive coloration (also known as disruptive camouflage or disruptive patterning) is a form of camouflage that works by breaking up the outlines of an animal, soldier or military hardware with a strongly contrasting pattern. It is often com ...

to reduce detection, but some are more colorful. Some have

urticating hair Urticating hairs or urticating bristles are one of the primary defense mechanisms used by numerous plants, almost all New World tarantulas, and various lepidopteran caterpillars. ''Urtica'' is Latin for "nettle" (stinging nettles are in the genu ...

s. A few species have been noted to produce clicking sounds with the larval mandibles when disturbed. Examples: luna moth ('' Actias luna'') and Polyphemus moth (''

Antheraea polyphemus ''Antheraea polyphemus'', the Polyphemus moth, is a North American member of the family Saturniidae, the giant silk moths. It is a tan-colored moth, with an average wingspan of 15 cm (6 in). The most notable feature of the moth is its ...

''). The clicks may serve as

aposematic Aposematism is the Advertising in biology, advertising by an animal, whether terrestrial or marine, to potential predation, predators that it is not worth attacking or eating. This unprofitability may consist of any defenses which make the pr ...

warning signals to a regurgitation defense. Most are solitary feeders, but some are

gregarious Sociality is the degree to which individuals in an animal population tend to associate in social groups (gregariousness) and form cooperative societies. Sociality is a survival response to evolutionary pressures. For example, when a mother was ...

. The

Hemileucinae Hemileucinae is a subfamily of the family Saturniidae, including a number of taxa whose caterpillars have venomous urticating hairs. This subfamily contains the following genera: *'' Adetomeris'' Michener, 1949 *'' Ancistrota'' Hübner, 1819 ...

are gregarious when young and have stinging hairs, and those of '' Lonomia'' contain a poison that may kill a human. ''

Arsenura armida ''Arsenura armida'', the giant silk moth, is a moth of the family Saturniidae. It is found mainly in South and Central America, from Mexico to Bolivia, and Ecuador to south-eastern Brazil. It was first described by Pieter Cramer in 1779. It is ...

'' is another well-known example and is infamous for its large conspicuous masses during the day. Their coloration is not cryptic, instead exhibiting aposematism. The other caterpillars in this size range are almost universally

Sphingidae The Sphingidae are a family of moths commonly called sphinx moths, also colloquially known as hawk moths, with many of their caterpillars known as hornworms. It includes about 1,450 species. It is best represented in the tropics, but species ar ...

, which are seldom hairy and tend to have diagonal stripes on their sides. Many Sphingidae caterpillars bear a single curved horn on their hind end. These are actually not dangerous, but large, hairy caterpillars should generally not be touched except by experts. Most saturniid larvae feed on the foliage of trees and shrubs. A few, particularly Hemileucinae such as ''

Automeris louisiana ''Automeris louisiana'', the Louisiana eyed silkmoth, is a species of moth in the family Saturniidae. It is found in North America. The MONA or Hodges number for ''Automeris louisiana'' is List of moths of North America, 7749.1. ITIS Taxonomic ...

'', '' A. patagonensis'', and ''

Hemileuca oliviae ''Hemileuca oliviae'', the range caterpillar, is a species of insect in the moth family Saturniidae Saturniidae, members of which are commonly named the saturniids, is a family of Lepidoptera with an estimated 2,300 described species. The fa ...

'', feed on grasses. They

moult In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is a process by which an animal casts off parts of its body to serve some beneficial purpose, either at ...

at regular intervals, usually four to six times before entering the pupal stage. Prior to pupation, a wandering stage occurs, and the caterpillar may change color, becoming more cryptic just before this stage.

Pupae

Most larvae spin a silken cocoon in the leaves of a preferred

plant or in

leaf litter Plant litter (also leaf litter, tree litter, soil litter, litterfall, or duff) is dead plant material (such as leaves, bark, needles, twigs, and cladodes) that has fallen to the ground. This detritus or dead organic material and its constituen ...

on the ground, or crevices in rocks and logs. While only moderately close relatives to the silkworm (''

Bombyx mori ''Bombyx mori'', commonly known as the domestic silk moth, is a moth species belonging to the family Bombycidae. It is the closest relative of '' Bombyx mandarina'', the wild silk moth. Silkworms are the larvae of silk moths. The silkworm is of ...

'') among the Lepidoptera, the cocoons of larger saturniids can be gathered and used to make

silk Silk is a natural fiber, natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be weaving, woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is most commonly produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoon (silk), c ...

fabric. However, larvae of some species – typically

Ceratocampinae Ceratocampinae is a subfamily of moths in the family Saturniidae. Species can be found in the New World The term "New World" is used to describe the majority of lands of Earth's Western Hemisphere, particularly the Americas, and sometimes ...

, like the regal moth ('' Citheronia regalis'') and the imperial moth ('' Eacles imperialis''), burrow and pupate in a small chamber beneath the soil. This is common in the

and Hemileucinae. Unlike most silk moths, those that pupate underground do not use much silk in the construction. Once enclosed in the cocoon, the caterpillar sheds the larval skin and becomes a pupa, and the pupa undergoes

metamorphosis Metamorphosis is a biological process by which an animal physically develops including birth transformation or hatching, involving a conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the animal's body structure through cell growth and different ...

for about 14 days, at which point it either emerges or goes into diapause. During metamorphosis, the respiratory system will stay intact, the digestive system will dissolve, and reproductive organs will take form.

Adults

Adult females emerge with a complete set of mature

ova , abbreviated as OVA and sometimes as OAV (original animation video), are Japanese animated films and special episodes of a series made specially for release in home video formats without prior showings on television or in theaters, though the ...

and "call" males by emitting

pheromones A pheromone () is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavi ...

(specific "calling" times vary by species). Males can detect these chemical signals up to a mile away with help from sensitive receptors located on the tips of their feather-like antennae. The males fly several miles in one night to locate a female and mate with her; females generally will not fly until after they have mated. Since the mouthparts of adult saturniids are vestigial and digestive tracts are absent, adults subsist on stored

lipids Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds which include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins Vitamin A, A, Vitamin D, D, Vitamin E, E and Vitamin K, K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The fu ...

acquired during the

larva A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase ...

l stage. As such, adult behavior is devoted almost entirely to

reproduction Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. There are two forms of reproduction: Asexual reproduction, asexual and Sexual ...

, but the end result (due to lack of feeding) is a lifespan of a week or less once emerged from the pupa. One specific species in the family Saturniidae with a special mating pattern is ''

Callosamia promethea ''Callosamia promethea'', commonly known as the promethea silkmoth, is a member of the family Saturniidae, which contains approximately 2,300 species. It is also known as the spicebush silkmoth, which refers to one of the promethea silkmoth's com ...

'' (promethea silkmoth). Females will mate with multiple males and males will mate with multiple females (

polygynandry Polygynandry is a mating system in which both males and females have multiple mating partners during a breeding season. In sexually reproducing diploid animals, different mating strategies are employed by males and females, because the cost of gam ...

). Females that mate with more than one male will produce 10% more eggs.

Importance to humans

file:Imperial-moth-camouflaged-with-leaf.jpg, 200px, Typical example of Saturniidae camouflage, '' Eacles imperialis'' (imperial moth), next to a nearly identical yellow poplar (''Liriodendron tulipifera'') leaf A few species are important defoliator pest (organism), pests, including the orange-striped oakworm moth (''Anisota senatoria'') on oaks, the pandora pinemoth (''

Coloradia pandora The Pandora moth or Pandora pinemoth (''Coloradia pandora'') is an insect belonging to the moth genus ''Coloradia''. The species was first described by C. A. Blake in 1863. It is native to the western United States. The larvae of the Pandora mot ...

'') on

pine A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. ''World Flora Online'' accepts 134 species-rank taxa (119 species and 15 nothospecies) of pines as cu ...

s and ''

'' on range

grass Poaceae ( ), also called Gramineae ( ), is a large and nearly ubiquitous family (biology), family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos, the grasses of natural grassland and spe ...

es. Other species are of major commercial importance in

tussah Tussar silk (alternatively spelled as tussah, tushar, tassar, tussore, tasar, tussur, or tusser, and also known as (Sanskrit) ''kosa'' silk) is produced from larvae of several species of silkworms belonging to the moth genus '' Antheraea'', incl ...

and

wild silk Wild silks have been known and used in many countries from early times, although the scale of production is far smaller than that from cultivated silkworms. Silk cocoons and nests often resemble paper or cloth, and their use has arisen independe ...

production. These notably include the Chinese tussah moth (''

Antheraea pernyi ''Antheraea pernyi'', the Chinese oak tussar moth, Chinese tasar moth, or temperate tussar moth, is a large moth in the family Saturniidae. The species was first described by Félix Édouard Guérin-Méneville in 1855. '' Antheraea roylei'' is an ...

''), its hybridogenic descendant ''Antheraea'' × ''proylei'', and the ailanthus silkmoth (''

Samia cynthia ''Samia cynthia'', the ailanthus silkmoth, is a saturniid moth, used to produce silk fabric but not as domesticated as the silkworm, ''Bombyx mori''. The moth has very large wings of , with a quarter-moon shaped spot on both the upper and lower ...

''). Mopane worm (''

Gonimbrasia belina ''Gonimbrasia belina'' is a species of emperor moth which is native to the warmer parts of southern Africa. Its large edible caterpillar, known as the mopane worm, madora, amacimbi “pigeon moth”, masonja or Seboko sa Mongana, feeds primari ...

''), ''

Gonimbrasia zambesina ''Gonimbrasia'' is a genus of moths in the family Saturniidae first described by Arthur Gardiner Butler in 1878. Species *'' Gonimbrasia abayana'' (Rougeot, 1977) *'' Gonimbrasia alcestris'' Weymer, 1907 *'' Gonimbrasia annulata'' Bouvier, 1936 * ...

'', the cabbage tree emperor moth (''

Bunaea alcinoe ''Bunaea alcinoe'', the cabbage tree emperor moth, is an African moth species belonging to the family Saturniidae. It was first described by Caspar Stoll in 1780. Larva The final instar is about in length and about in diameter. "Ground colou ...

''), '' Gynanisa maia'', '' Imbrasia epimethea'', ''

Imbrasia oyemensis ''Imbrasia'' is a genus of moths belonging to the family Saturniidae first described by Jacob Hübner in 1819. Species of this genus are present in the tropical Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continen ...

'', '' Melanocera menippe'', '' Microgone cana'', ''

Urota sinope ''Urota'' is a monotypic moth genus in the family Saturniidae erected by John O. Westwood in 1849. Its single species, ''Urota sinope'', was described by the same author in the same year. It was described from KwaZulu-Natal KwaZulu-Natal ( ...

'' and the pallid emperor moth (''

Cirina forda ''Cirina forda'', the pallid emperor moth or shea defoliator, is a moth of the family Saturniidae. The species was first described by John O. Westwood in 1849. It is found in western Africa, including Ghana, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, the Democratic Re ...

''). Some species of Saturniidae such as the mopane worm (''

'') are used as a food source. Most Saturniidae are harmless animals at least as adults, and in many cases at all stages of their lives. Thus, some of the more spectacular species – in particular ''

Antheraea ''Antheraea'' is a genus of moths belonging to the family Saturniidae. It was erected by Jacob Hübner in 1819. Several species of this genus have caterpillars which produce wild silk of commercial importance. Commonly called "tussar silk", the ...

'' – can be raised by children or school classes as educational pets. The soft, silken cocoons make an interesting keepsake for pupils. Some, including the genus '' Automeris'', have urticating spines that sting. Caterpillars of the genus '' Lonomia'' produce a deadly

toxin A toxin is a naturally occurring poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. They occur especially as proteins, often conjugated. The term was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919), derived ...

injected into the victim when it is touched.

Systematics and evolution

In terms of absolute numbers of species, the Saturniidae are most diverse in the

Neotropics The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone. Definition In biogeog ...

. Also, their most ancient

subfamilies In biological classification, a subfamily (Latin: ', plural ') is an auxiliary (intermediate) taxonomic rank, next below family but more inclusive than genus. Standard nomenclature rules end botanical subfamily names with "-oideae", and zool ...

occur only in the Americas. Only the very "modern" Saturniidae are widely distributed across most parts of the world. Thus, it is quite safe to assume – even in the absence of a comprehensive

fossil record A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved ...

– that the first Saturniidae originated in the Neotropical region. Note that at least two of the subfamilies included below are commonly treated as separate families (

Oxyteninae Oxyteninae is a subfamily of the family Saturniidae Saturniidae, members of which are commonly named the saturniids, is a family of Lepidoptera with an estimated 2,300 described species. The family contains some of the largest species of mo ...

and

Cercophaninae Cercophaninae is a subfamily of the family Saturniidae Saturniidae, members of which are commonly named the saturniids, is a family of Lepidoptera with an estimated 2,300 described species. The family contains some of the largest species of ...

). The following list arranges the subfamilies in the presumed

phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics () is the study of the evolutionary history of life using observable characteristics of organisms (or genes), which is known as phylogenetic inference. It infers the relationship among organisms based on empirical dat ...

sequence, from the most ancient to the most advanced. * Subfamily

(3 genera, 35 species) * Subfamily

(4 genera, 10 species) * Subfamily

Arsenurinae Arsenurinae is a subfamily of the family Saturniidae Saturniidae, members of which are commonly named the saturniids, is a family of Lepidoptera with an estimated 2,300 described species. The family contains some of the largest species of m ...

(10 genera, 60 species, Neotropics) * Subfamily

(27 genera, 170 species, Americas) * Subfamily

(51 genera, 630 species, Americas) * Subfamily

Agliinae ''Aglia'' is a genus of moths in the family Saturniidae first described by Ochsenheimer in 1810. It is the only genus in the subfamily Agliinae. They don't spin a cocoon. Species *'' Aglia tau'' (Linnaeus, 1758 Events January&ndas ...

(1 genus, 3 species) * Subfamily Ludiinae (disputed) (8 genera, Africa) * Subfamily

Salassinae ''Salassa'' is a genus of moths in the family Saturniidae. It is the only genus in the subfamily Salassinae. Species The following species are recognised in the genus ''Salassa'': * '' Salassa aeos'' Witt & Pugaev, 2007 * '' Salassa albocircul ...

(1 genus, 12 species, tropics) * Subfamily

(59 genera, 480 species, tropical and temperate regions worldwide) Grote nachtpauwoog - s0189V1962 - Van Gogh Museum

References

Bibliography

* Latham, P. (2008) ''Les chenilles comestibles et leurs plantes nourricières dans la province du Bas-Congo''
PDF fulltext
* Latham, P. (2015) ''Edible Caterpillars and Their Food Plants in Bas-Congo Province, Democratic Republic of Congo''
PDF fulltext
* Scoble, M.J. (1995): ''The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity'' (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

External links

Family Saturniidae (Wild Silk Moths)

Bombycoidea of Canada

Moths (Saturniidae) of the United States

Saturnia-Homepage

Images of Saturniidae species of New Zealand
{{Authority control Moth families