Genetically modified canola is a
genetically modified crop
Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of ''Agrobacterium'' for the delivery of se ...
. The first strain, Roundup Ready
canola
Close-up of canola blooms
Canola flower
Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils. There are both edible and industrial forms produced from rapeseed, the seed of several cultivars of the plant family Brassicaceae. Historically, ...
, was developed by
Monsanto
The Monsanto Company () was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri. Monsanto's best known product is Roundup, a glyphosate-based herbicide, developed i ...
for tolerance to
glyphosate
Glyphosate (IUPAC name: ''N''-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant. It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by inhibiting the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshik ...
, the active ingredient in the commonly used
herbicide Roundup
A roundup is a systematic gathering together of people or things.
Roundup, Round Up or Round-up may also refer to:
Agriculture
* A muster (livestock) (AU/NZ) or a roundup (US/CA) is the process of gathering livestock.
* Roundup (herbicide), a M ...
.
Genetic modification
Glyphosate
Glyphosate (IUPAC name: ''N''-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant. It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by inhibiting the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshik ...
is a broad-spectrum herbicide, which is used to kill weeds and grasses which are known to compete with commercial crops grown around the world. The first product came onto the market in the 1970's under the name ‘Roundup’. Plants which are exposed to glyphosate are unable to produce
aromatic amino acids
An aromatic amino acid is an amino acid that includes an aromaticity, aromatic ring.
Among the 20 standard amino acids, the following are classically considered aromatic: phenylalanine, tryptophan and tyrosine. Although histidine contains an ar ...
and in turn die.
To produce the Roundup Ready canola, two genes were introduced into the canola genome. One is a gene derived from the common soil bacterium ''
Agrobacterium
''Agrobacterium'' is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria established by H. J. Conn that uses horizontal gene transfer to cause tumors in plants. '' Agrobacterium tumefaciens'' is the most commonly studied species in this genus. ''Agrobacterium'' ...
'' strain CP4, that encodes for the ''
EPSPS
5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP) synthase is an enzyme produced by plants and microorganisms. EPSPS catalysis, catalyzes the chemical reaction:
:phosphoenolpyruvic acid, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) + 3-phospho shikimic acid, shikimate (S ...
'' enzyme. The other is a gene from the ''
Brucella anthropi
''Brucella anthropi'' is a bacterium. The type strain is strain CIP 82.115 (= CIP 14970 = NCTC 12168 = LMG 3331). ''O. anthropi'' strains are rod-shaped, aerobic, gram-negative, non-pigmented and motile by means of peritrichous flagella
A f ...
'' strain LBAA, which encodes for the enzyme
glyphosate oxidase (''GOX''). The CP4 ''EPSPS'' enzyme imparts high tolerance to glyphosate, so the plants can still create
aromatic amino acids
An aromatic amino acid is an amino acid that includes an aromaticity, aromatic ring.
Among the 20 standard amino acids, the following are classically considered aromatic: phenylalanine, tryptophan and tyrosine. Although histidine contains an ar ...
even after glyphosate is applied. ''GOX'' helps break down glyphosate within the plant.
Regulation
Genetically modified crops undergo a significant amount of regulation throughout the world.
For a GM crop to be approved for release in the US, it must be assessed by the
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) based in Riverdale, Maryland responsible for protecting animal health, animal welfare, and plant health. APHIS is the lead a ...
(APHIS) agency within the
US Department of Agriculture
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the federal executive department responsible for developing and executing federal laws related to farming, forestry, rural economic development, and food. It aims to meet the needs of comm ...
(USDA) and may also be assessed by the
Food and Drug Administration
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a federal agency of the Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food ...
(FDA) and the
Environmental Protection Agency
A biophysical environment is a biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism or population, and consequently includes the factors that have an influence in their survival, development, and evolution. A biophysical environment can vary in scale f ...
(EPA), depending on the intended use. The USDA evaluates the plant's potential to become a weed. The FDA regulates crops used as food or animal feed. In
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tota ...
, the largest producer of GM canola, GM crops are regulated by
Health Canada, under the Food and Drugs Act, and the
Canadian Food Inspection Agency
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA; french: Agence canadienne d'inspection des aliments) is a regulatory agency that is dedicated to the safeguarding of food, plants, and animals (FPA) in Canada, thus enhancing the health and well-being of ...
are responsible for evaluating the safety and nutritional value of genetically modified foods. Environmental assessments of biotechnology-derived plants are carried out by the CFIA's Plant Biosafety Office (PBO).
Glyphosate
Glyphosate (IUPAC name: ''N''-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant. It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by inhibiting the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshik ...
- and
glufosinate
Glufosinate (also known as phosphinothricin and often sold as an ammonium salt) is a naturally occurring broad-spectrum herbicide produced by several species of ''Streptomyces'' soil bacteria. Glufosinate is a non-selective, contact herbicide, ...
-tolerant canola were the first two GM plants to gain approval in Canada.
In
Australia Roundup Ready Canola was approved for commercial production in 2003 by the Gene Technology Regulator after undergoing approximately 400 tests and studies to determine it was safe.
Food Standards Australia New Zealand also approved this product as being safe for human consumption in the same year.
Controversy
Controversy exists over the use of food and other goods derived from
genetically modified crops
Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of '' Agrobacterium'' for the delivery of ...
instead of from
conventional crops, and other uses of
genetic engineering
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including ...
in food production. The dispute involves consumers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, nongovernmental organizations, and scientists. The key areas of controversy related to GMO foods are whether they should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of GM crops on health and the environment, the effect on
pesticide resistance
Pesticide resistance describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest. Pest species evolve pesticide resistance via natural selection: the most resistant specimens s ...
, the impact of GM crops for farmers, and the role of GM crops in feeding the world population.
There is a
scientific consensus
Scientific consensus is the generally held judgment, position, and opinion of the majority or the supermajority of scientists in a particular field of study at any particular time.
Consensus is achieved through scholarly communication at co ...
that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,
but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.
Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.
The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.
Advocacy groups such as
Greenpeace
Greenpeace is an independent global campaigning network, founded in Canada in 1971 by Irving Stowe and Dorothy Stowe, immigrant environmental activists from the United States. Greenpeace states its goal is to "ensure the ability of the Earth ...
,
the Non-GMO Project
The Non-GMO Project is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization focusing on genetically modified organisms. The organization began as an initiative of independent natural foods retailers in the U.S. and Canada, with the stated aim to label products pr ...
, and
Organic Consumers Association
The Organic Consumers Association (OCA) is a non-profit advocacy group for the organic agriculture industry based in Minnesota
Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. s ...
say that risks of GM food have not been adequately identified and managed, and have questioned the objectivity of regulatory authorities. They have expressed concerns about the objectivity of regulators and rigor of the regulatory process, about contamination of the non-GM food supply, about effects of GMOs on the environment and nature, and about the consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs.
Resistances problems
Due to the heavy reliance of glyphosate in agriculture, resistance to this chemical is a problem and is prevalent throughout Australia, the USA, and Canada.
Roundup canola has also emerged as a weed in other crops due to its glyphosate resistance. This is due to canola seed being able to be dormant in the soil for up to 10 years. In California, it has become a significant problem in this way because of the restrictions on phenoxy herbicides being used in the state due to crops such as the sensitivity of cotton and grapes to this chemical.
References
{{Genetic engineering
Genetically modified organisms in agriculture
Genetically modified organisms