Gender variance or gender nonconformity is behavior or
gender expression by an individual that does not match masculine or feminine
gender norms. A gender-nonconforming person may be variant in their
gender identity, being
transgender or
non-binary, or they may be
cisgender. In the case of transgender people, they may be perceived, or perceive themselves as, gender-nonconforming before transitioning, but might not be perceived as such after transitioning. Transgender adults who appear gender-nonconforming after transition are more likely to experience
transphobic discrimination.
Terminology
People who exhibit gender variance may be called ''gender-variant'', ''gender-nonconforming'', ''gender-diverse,'' or ''gender-atypical''. The terms ''gender variance'' and ''gender-variant'' are used by scholars of
psychology,
psychiatry,
anthropology, and
gender studies, as well as advocacy groups of gender-variant people themselves. The term ''gender-variant'' is deliberately broad, encompassing such specific terms as ''
transsexual'',
''butch'' and ''femme'', ''
queen'', ''
sissy'', ''
tomboy
A tomboy is a term for a girl or a young woman with masculine qualities. It can include wearing androgynous or unfeminine clothing and actively engage in physical sports or other activities and behaviors usually associated with boys or men. Wh ...
'', ''
femboy'', ''
travesti
Travesti may refer to:
* Travesti (gender identity), a transgender identity in South America
* Travesti (theatre), a performance while wearing clothes of the opposite sex
* "Travesti", a section of Arca's 2020 single "@@@@@"
See also
* Tr ...
'', or ''
hijra''.
The word ''
transgender'' usually has a narrower meaning and different connotations, including an identification that differs from the
gender assigned at birth.
GLAAD
GLAAD (), an acronym of Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation, is an American non-governmental media monitoring organization originally founded as a protest against defamatory coverage of gay and lesbian demographics and their portrayals ...
(formerly the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation)'s Media Reference Guide defines ''transgender'' as an "umbrella term for people whose gender identity or gender expression differs from the sex they were assigned at birth."
[Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation]
"GLAAD Media Reference Guide, 8th Edition. Transgender Glossary of Terms"
, ''GLAAD
GLAAD (), an acronym of Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation, is an American non-governmental media monitoring organization originally founded as a protest against defamatory coverage of gay and lesbian demographics and their portrayals ...
'', USA, May 2010. Retrieved on 2011-03-02. Not all gender-variant people identify as transgender, and not all transgender people identify as gender-variantmany identify simply as men or women.
Gender identity is one's internal sense of their own
gender; while most people have a gender identity of a boy or a man, or a girl or a woman, gender identity for other people is a more complex experience.
Furthermore, gender expression is the external manifestation of one's gender identity, usually through "masculine", "feminine", or gender-variant presentation or behavior.
Australian terminology
In Australia, the term ''gender-diverse'' or, historically, ''sex and/or gender-diverse'', may be used in place of, or as well as, ''transgender''.
Culturally-specific gender diverse terms include ''sistergirls'' and ''brotherboys'', for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.
Ambiguities about the inclusion or exclusion of
intersex people in terminology, such as ''sex and/or gender-diverse'', led to a decline in use of the terms ''sex and/or gender-diverse'' and ''diverse sexes and genders'' (DSG).
[Transgendervictoria.com](_blank)
, Transgender Victoria, February 2013, "Review of ABS Standard Welcome" Current regulations providing for the recognition of trans and other gender identities use terms such as ''gender diverse'' and ''transgender''.
[]] In July 2013, the Australian
National LGBTI Health Alliance produced a guide entitled "Inclusive Language Guide: Respecting people of intersex, trans and gender diverse experience" which clearly distinguishes between different bodily and identity groups.
In childhood
Multiple studies have suggested a correlation between children who express gender nonconformity and their eventually coming out as
gay,
bisexual
Bisexuality is a romantic or sexual attraction or behavior toward both males and females, or to more than one gender. It may also be defined to include romantic or sexual attraction to people regardless of their sex or gender identity, whi ...
, or
transgender.
In multiple studies, a majority of those who identify as gay or
lesbian
A lesbian is a Homosexuality, homosexual woman.Zimmerman, p. 453. The word is also used for women in relation to their sexual identity or sexual behavior, regardless of sexual orientation, or as an adjective to characterize or associate n ...
self-report gender nonconformity as children.
However, the accuracy of some of these studies have been questioned.
The therapeutic community is currently divided on the proper response to childhood gender nonconformity.
One study suggested that childhood gender nonconformity is
heritable.
Studies have also been conducted about adults' attitudes towards nonconforming children. There are reportedly no significant generalized effects (with the exception of few outliers) on attitudes towards children who vary in gender traits, interests, and behavior.
Children who are gender-variant may struggle to conform later in life. As children get older and are not treated for the mismatch between their minds and bodily appearance, this leads to discomfort, and negative self-image and eventually may lead to
depression,
suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Mental disorders (including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders), physical disorders (such as chronic fatigue syndrome), and s ...
, or
self-doubt
Doubt is a mental state in which the mind remains suspended between two or more contradictory propositions, unable to be certain of any of them.
Doubt on an emotional level is indecision between belief and disbelief. It may involve uncertainty, ...
. If a child is nonconforming at a very young age, it is important to provide family support for positive impact to family and the child. Children who do not conform prior to age 11 tend to have an increased risk for depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation as a young adult.
[Roberts, A., Rosario, M., Slopen, N., et al. (2013). Childhood gender nonconformity, bullying victimization, and depressive symptoms across adolescence and early adulthood: an 11-year longitudinal study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 52(2): 143-152] A 2012 study found that both children who will be heterosexual and children who will have a minority sexual orientation who expressed gender nonconformity before the age of 11 were more likely to experience
abuse physically,
sexually, and
psychologically
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between t ...
.
Roberts et al. (2013) found that of participants in their study aged between 23 and 30, 26% of those who were gender nonconforming experienced some sort of depressive symptoms, versus 18% of those were gender-conforming.
Treatment for
gender identity disorders (GID; now known as ''gender dysphoria'') such as gender variance have been a topic of controversy for three decades.
[Hill, D., Rozanski, C., Carfagnini, J., & Willoughby, B. (January 01, 2007). Gender identity disorders (GID) in childhood and adolescence. International Journal of Sexual Health, 19, 1, 57-75] In the works of Hill, Carfagnini and Willoughby (2007), Bryant (2004), "suggests that treatment protocols for these children and adolescents, especially those based on converting the child back to a stereotypically gendered youth, make matters worse, causing them to internalize their distress." Treatment for GID in children and adolescents may have negative consequences.
Studies suggest that treatment should focus more on helping children and adolescents feel comfortable living with GID. There is a feeling of distress that overwhelms a child or adolescent with GID that gets expressed through gender.
Hill et al. (2007) states, "if these youth are distressed by having a condition deemed by society as unwanted, is this evidence of a disorder?" Bartlett and colleagues (2000) note that the problem determining distress is aggravated in GID cases because usually, it is not clear whether distress in the child is due to gender variance or secondary effects (e.g., due to ostracization or stigmatization).
Hill et al. (2007) suggests, "a less controversial approach, respectful of increasing gender freedom in our culture and sympathetic to a child's struggle with gender, would be more humane."
Social status for men vs. women
Gender nonconformity among people assigned male at birth is usually more strictly, and sometimes violently,
policed in the West than is gender nonconformity among people assigned female at birth. However, a spectrum of types of gender nonconformity exists among boys and men. Some types of gender nonconformity, such as being a
stay-at-home father, may pass without comment whereas others, such as wearing lipstick and skirts, may attract stares, criticism, or questioning. Some cultures are more tolerant than others of such differences.
This is a comparatively recent development in historical terms, because the dress and careers of women used to be more heavily policed, and still are in countries like Iran and Saudi Arabia (where they are regulated by the law). The success of
second-wave feminism is the chief reason for the freedom of women in the West to wear traditionally-male clothing such as
trousers, or to take up traditionally-male occupations such as being a
medical doctor
A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
, etc. At the other extreme, some
Communist
Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a s ...
regimes such as the Soviet Union made a point of pushing women into traditionally male occupations in order to advance the
feminist ideology of the state for example, 58% of Soviet engineers were women in 1980 but this trend went into reverse after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Gender nonconforming transgender people in the United States have been demonstrated to have worse overall health outcomes than transgender individuals who identify as men or women.
Association with sexual orientation
Gender norms vary by country and by culture, as well as across historical time periods within cultures. For example, in
Pashtun tribes in Afghanistan, adult men frequently hold hands, without being perceived as gay, whereas in the West this behavior would, in most circumstances, be seen as proof of a homosexual relationship. However, in many cultures, behaviors such as crying, an inclination toward caring for and nurturing others in an emotionally open way, an interest in domestic chores other than cooking, and self-grooming can all be seen as aspects of male gender nonconformity.
Men who exhibit such tendencies are often stereotyped as gay. Studies found a high incidence of
gay males
Gay men are male homosexuals. Some bisexual and homoromantic men may also dually identify as gay, and a number of young gay men also identify as queer. Historically, gay men have been referred to by a number of different terms, including '' ...
self-reporting gender-atypical behaviors in childhood, such as having little interest in athletics and a preference for playing with dolls.
J. Michael Bailey
John Michael Bailey (born July 2, 1957) is an American psychologist, behavioural geneticist, and professor at Northwestern University best known for his work on the etiology of sexual orientation. He maintains that sexual orientation is heavily ...
, Joseph S. Miller, Lee Willerman; Maternally Rated Childhood Gender Nonconformity in Homosexuals and Heterosexuals, Archives of Sexual Behavior, Vol. 22, 1993. The same study found that mothers of gay males recalled such atypical behavior in their sons with much greater frequency than mothers of heterosexual males.
For women, adult gender nonconformity is often associated with lesbianism due to the limited identities women are faced with at adulthood.
Notions of heterosexual womanhood often require a rejection of physically demanding activities, social submission to a male figure (husband or boyfriend), an interest in reproduction and homemaking, and an interest in making oneself look more attractive for men with appropriate clothing, make-up, hairstyles and body shape.
Lesbian and bisexual women, being less concerned with attracting men, may find it easier to reject traditional ideas of womanhood because social punishment for such transgression is not effective, or at least no more effective than the consequences of being openly gay or bisexual in a
heteronormative society (which they already experience). This may help account for high levels of gender nonconformity self-reported by lesbians.
Gender theorist
Judith Butler
Judith Pamela Butler (born February 24, 1956) is an American philosopher and gender theorist whose work has influenced political philosophy, ethics, and the fields of third-wave feminism, queer theory, and literary theory. In 1993, Butler ...
, in her essay ''Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory'', states: "Discrete genders are part of what humanizes individuals within contemporary culture; indeed, those who fail to do their gender right are regularly punished. Because there is neither an 'essence' that gender expresses or externalizes nor an objective ideal to which gender aspires."
Butler argues that gender is not an inherent aspect of identity, further stating, "...One might try to reconcile the gendered body as the legacy of sedimented acts rather than a predetermined or foreclosed structure, essence or fact, whether natural, cultural, or linguistic".
Research into
nonbinary
Non-binary and genderqueer are umbrella terms for gender identities that are not solely male or femaleidentities that are outside the gender binary. Non-binary identities fall under the transgender umbrella, since non-binary people typically ...
gender identities has found this:
The overwhelming majority of non-binary respondents ... identified as having a sexual minority sexual orientation, which is also consistent with findings from other research. This substantial overlap between non-binary gender and sexual minority status is intriguing and supports the conceptualization that "non-traditional" gender identities (i.e., outside the gender binary) and sexual orientation are distinct yet interrelated constructs.
Clothing
Among adults, the wearing of
women's clothing
Clothing (also known as clothes, apparel, and attire) are items worn on the body. Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles, but over time it has included garments made from animal skin and other thin sheets of materials and natural ...
by men is often socially stigmatized and
fetishized, or viewed as sexually abnormal. However,
cross-dressing
Cross-dressing is the act of wearing clothes usually worn by a different gender. From as early as pre-modern history, cross-dressing has been practiced in order to disguise, comfort, entertain, and self-express oneself.
Cross-dressing has play ...
may be a form of gender expression and is not necessarily related to erotic activity, nor is it indicative of sexual orientation. Other gender-nonconforming men prefer to simply modify and stylise men's clothing as an expression of their interest in appearance and fashion.
Gender-affirmative practices
Gender-affirmative practices recognize and support an individual's unique gender self-identification and expression. Gender-affirmative practices are becoming more widely adopted in the mental and physical health fields in response to research showing that clinical practices that encourage individuals to accept a certain gender identity can cause psychological harm. In 2015, the
American Psychological Association published gender-affirmative practice guidelines for clinicians working with transgender and gender-nonconforming people. Preliminary research on gender-affirmative practices in the medical and psychological settings has primarily shown positive treatment outcomes. As these practices become more widely used, longer-term studies and studies with larger sample sizes are needed to continue to evaluate these practices.
Research has shown that youth who receive gender-affirming support from their parents have better mental health outcomes than their peers who do not.
Gender-affirmative practices emphasize gender health. Gender health is an individual's ability to identify as and express the gender(s) that feels most comfortable without fear of rejection.
Gender-affirmative practices are informed by the following premises:
* gender variance is not a psychological disorder or mental illness
* gender expressions vary across cultures
* gender expressions are diverse and may not be binary
* gender development is affected by biological, developmental, and cultural factors
* if pathology occurs, it is more often from cultural reactions rather than from within the individual
Mental health practitioners have begun integrating the gender-affirmative model into
cognitive behavioral therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psycho-social intervention that aims to reduce symptoms of various mental health conditions, primarily depression and anxiety disorders. CBT focuses on challenging and changing cognitive distortions (suc ...
,
person-centered therapy, and
acceptance and commitment therapy.
While taking different approaches, each therapeutic modality may prove beneficial to gender-variant people looking to self-actualize, cope with minority stress, or navigate personal, social, and occupational issues across the lifespan.
Atypical gender roles
Gender expectations, like other
social norms, can vary widely by culture. A person may be seen as expressing an atypical
gender role when their
gender expression and activities differ from those usually expected in that culture. What is "typical" for one culture may be "atypical" for another. People from cultures who conceptualize gender as polar opposites on a binary, or having only two options, may see cultures with
third gender people, or fluid gender expressions, and the people who live in these gender roles, as "atypical".
Gender expressions that ''some'' cultures might consider "atypical" could include:
* ''
Househusbands'': men from
patriarchal
Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of Dominance hierarchy, dominance and Social privilege, privilege are primarily held by men. It is used, both as a technical Anthropology, anthropological term for families or clans controll ...
cultures who stay at home to raise children and take care of the home while their partner goes to work.
National Public Radio reported that by 2015 this had risen to 38%. This would only be "atypical" in a culture where it is the norm for women to stay home.
* ''
Androgynous
Androgyny is the possession of both masculine and feminine characteristics. Androgyny may be expressed with regard to biological sex, gender identity, or gender expression.
When ''androgyny'' refers to mixed biological sex characteristics i ...
people'': having a gender presentation that is either mixed or neutral in a culture that prizes polarised (binary) presentations.
* ''
Crossdresser'': a person who dresses in the clothing of, and otherwise assumes, "the appearance, manner, or roles traditionally associated with members of the opposite sex". Crossdressers may be cisgender, or they may be trans people who have not yet transitioned.
* ''
Femminiello'': a population of people who embody a third gender role in traditional Neapolitan culture (southern Italy).
* ''
Hijra'': a traditional third-gender person who is occasionally intersex, but most often considered male at birth. Many of the Hijra are
eunuchs who have chosen to be ritually castrated in a dedication ceremony. They have a ceremonial role in several traditional South Asian cultures, often performing naming ceremonies and blessings. They dress in what is considered "women's" garments for that culture, but are seen as neither men nor women, but ''hijra''.
* ''
Khanith
Khanith (also spelled Khaneeth or Xanith; ar, خنيث, translit=khanīth) denotes a person assigned male at birth who uses feminine gender expression, including trans women, men who have sex with men, cisgender or Boudi men perceived as femin ...
'': an effeminate gay male in
Omani culture who is allowed to associate with women. The clothing of these individuals must be intermediate between that of a male and a female.
*
Two-spirit: a modern,
pan-Indian,
umbrella term used by some
Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people in their communities who fulfill a traditional
third-gender (or other gender-variant) social and ceremonial role in their cultures.
The term ''two-spirit'' was created in 1990 at the Indigenous
lesbian
A lesbian is a Homosexuality, homosexual woman.Zimmerman, p. 453. The word is also used for women in relation to their sexual identity or sexual behavior, regardless of sexual orientation, or as an adjective to characterize or associate n ...
and
gay international gathering in
Winnipeg, and "specifically chosen to distinguish and distance Native American/First Nations people from non-Native peoples."
* Male spirit mediums in Myanmar: Biological men that are spirit mediums (''nat kadaw'') wear women's attire and wear makeup during religious ceremonies. The majority of male spirit mediums live their lives permanently as women.
See also
*
Discrimination against non-binary gender people
Discrimination against non-binary people, or people who do not identify exclusively as male or female, may occur in social, legal, or medical contexts. This is sometimes known as enbyphobia and exorsexism. Both cisgender and transgender peop ...
*
Effeminacy
*
Gender bender
*
Gender binary
*
Gender diversity
*
Gender dysphoria
Gender dysphoria (GD) is the distress a person experiences due to a mismatch between their gender identitytheir personal sense of their own genderand their sex assigned at birth. The diagnostic label gender identity disorder (GID) was used until ...
*
Gender polarization
*
Gender policing
*
Masculinity
Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed, and there is also evidence that some behaviors con ...
*
Queer heterosexuality
*
Third gender
*
Transphobia
References
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
*
{{Authority control
Androgyny
Nonconformity
Nonconformity or nonconformism may refer to:
Culture and society
* Insubordination, the act of willfully disobeying an order of one's superior
* Dissent, a sentiment or philosophy of non-agreement or opposition to a prevailing idea or entity
* ...
Nonconformity
Nonconformity or nonconformism may refer to:
Culture and society
* Insubordination, the act of willfully disobeying an order of one's superior
* Dissent, a sentiment or philosophy of non-agreement or opposition to a prevailing idea or entity
* ...
Transgender