Futunan or Futunian is the
Polynesian language spoken on
Futuna (and Alofi). The term East-Futunan is also used to distinguish it from the related
West Futunan (Futuna-Aniwan) spoken on the
outlier
In statistics, an outlier is a data point that differs significantly from other observations. An outlier may be due to a variability in the measurement, an indication of novel data, or it may be the result of experimental error; the latter are ...
islands of
Futuna and
Aniwa in
Vanuatu
Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (; ), is an island country in Melanesia located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of northern Australia, northeast of New Caledonia, east o ...
.
The language is closely related to other
Western Polynesian languages:
Fagauvea,
Wallisian,
Tongan,
Samoan,
Tokelau
Tokelau (; ; known previously as the Union Islands, and, until 1976, known officially as the Tokelau Islands) is a dependent territory of New Zealand in the southern Pacific Ocean. It consists of three tropical coral atolls: Atafu, Nukunonu, an ...
, and
Niuafoʻou.
It is classified as Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Central-Eastern Oceanic, Remote Oceanic, Central Pacific, East Fijian-Polynesian, Polynesian, Nuclear, Samoic-Outlier, Futunic, Futuna, East.
This language is a member of the
diminishing set of native Pacific languages. it is classified as endangered.
History
King
Sigave signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888, after being pressured by missionaries to do so. The islands were put under the authority of the
French colony of
New Caledonia
New Caledonia ( ; ) is a group of islands in the southwest Pacific Ocean, southwest of Vanuatu and east of Australia. Located from Metropolitan France, it forms a Overseas France#Sui generis collectivity, ''sui generis'' collectivity of t ...
. In 1917, the three traditional kingdoms of Wallis, Futuna and Alofi were annexed as colonies of France. In 1961 citizens voted on becoming a French overseas territory, legally unionizing Wallis and Futuna despite the fact that the islands are home to two distinct Polynesian societies with different cultures.
Despite being a French colony, Futunan remained relatively protected from the linguistic consequences of European language domination. The situation began to change around the second World War when the numbers of speakers started to decline dramatically. A major event in the decline was the immigration of a large number of native Futunian speakers to New Caledonia. French has since enveloped Futunan in society, becoming the primary language used in grade schools. Futunans speak and use their language daily, mainly only using French in contact with European natives, or within the educational spheres. RFO-radio airs 15 minutes daily news broadcasts in Futunan.
Phonology
The Futunan language has five vowels; /a, e, i, o, u/, which can be short or long. Long vowels are denoted by a macron: ā, ē, ī, ō, ū.
Futunan has 11 consonants: 4 plosives /p, t, k, ʔ/; 3 nasals /m, n, ŋ/; 1 liquid /l/; and 3 fricatives /f, v, s/.
The Futunan syllable structure is (C)V, examples: ''eio'' (yes), ''tauasu'' (meeting where one drinks kava), ''aua'' (particle of the negative imperative), etc.).
Orthography
As Futunan natives did not have a writing system, the first documented written form of Futunian was a list of 118 words collected by and
Jacob Le Maire in 1616 during their visit to
Futuna.
The first orthography for Futunan was developed by Isidore Grétzel, and was largely phonological, with vowel length indicated by a
superscript dash (e.g. ā, ē, ī, ō, ū) and
glottal stop
The glottal stop or glottal plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many Speech communication, spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic ...
by an
apostrophe. This practice was then adopted and improved by
Claire Moyse-Faurie
Claire Moyse-Faurie (born 7 October 1949) is a French linguist specializing in Oceanic languages, in particular the languages of Wallis and Futuna and of New Caledonia.
Education, career and honours
Moyse-Faurie studied with the linguist Andr ...
, notably replacing the superscript denoting vowel length with a
macron.
In the Futunan orthography nasal velar consonant is written as . This practice differs from the other
Polynesian languages such as
Tongan, where the said phoneme is written as (e.g. Tongan ''tangata'' vs. Futunan ''tagata'', 'man').
Official vs. self-taught orthography
Despite the adoption of the Futunan orthography proposed by Moyse-Faurie for teaching and official uses, both Futunans and Wallisians use a different orthography. In daily life, the
macron is usually omitted or replaced with a
circumflex accent due to difficulties in typing these diacritics on an
AZERTY keyboard. The apostrophe for
glottal stop
The glottal stop or glottal plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many Speech communication, spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic ...
is also omitted, especially when located at the beginning of the word. Thus, the phrase 'good morning' is often written as or even simply without any apostrophe at all. Claire Moyse-Faurie nevertheless believes that it is essential to note the vowel length and the glottal stroke in order to distinguish words correctly and avoid any confusion.
Similarly, the
spacing of words differs between the official orthography and the majority usage of Futunans. For example, the official spelling separates
prepositions from
articles (), whereas self-taught orthography tends to use no spacing at all ().
Grammar
Pronouns
The third person pronoun is now rarely used in Futunan. For all pronoun references, except third person singular, Futunan offers a choice o
pre-posed and post-posedpronouns, which are pronouns placed before or after the subject. Modern Futunan has done away with the possibility of expressing pre-posed and post-posed pronouns. Clitic pronouns (clitic pronouns are dependent on an adjacent word and cannot stand on their own in meaning.) of the first and second type may correspond to different types of arguments: the absolute of intransitive clauses, the
ergative of transitive clauses, and the absolute of transitive clauses. In some cases unique to the Polynesian language family, Futunan uses a pre-posed pronoun to refer to the patient of an ergative verb. In casual conversation the use of a pre-verbal pronoun can be rather frequent.
Futunan makes extensive syntactic use of pre-posed pronouns in conversation, where post-posed pronouns are used more in tails. Sentences containing post-posed pronouns only have two possible word orders: VAO (Verb, Adverb, Object) or VOA (Verb, Object, Adverb) (Example: etusii a au e lātou ke kau ano o fakafofoga loku fā kolo i le aso o Toloke. "They represented me to go and represent the village at the festivities in Toloke"). Co-occurring clitic and post-posed pronouns seem to have given way to the unique occurrence of post-posed pronouns with similar focusing functions.
Verbs
The marker 'a' is required before definite plural nouns and noun phrases, post-verbal pronominals and proper nouns, however it is not required for phrases preceded by an article or possessive pronoun. The marker 'e' is used in front of
ergative arguments. The markers 'i' and 'ki' cover a range of meanings and satisfy a range of conditions. Most commonly the objects of 'i' are obligatory, while only some objects of 'ki' are. They are used extensively as directional, causal, or instrumental case markers. They refer to destination, aim or purpose as well as verbs of feeling, address or sensation.
The verb classes consists of
impersonal,
intransitive (A/A + I), middle (A + Ki),
transitive (A + E), "AA + E", "AA + I" or AA + E" verbs. most AA + I and A + E verbs underg
derivationto change their argument structure. Futunan has single, double and triple argument structures. Suffixes 'i' and 'ki' are used to derive verbs, the only productive suffix is 'a' which means "be full of". If an absolute argument in a sentence with a non-derived verb represents an agent, it will be marked as an
ergative, and a patient will be added in the absolute case. (Example: "kutu" means lice; "kutu-a" means be covered with lice). If an absolutive argument represents a patient in a sentence with a derived verb, it will contain an additional ergative argument. (Example: "lamata" means tame, "faka-lamata" means be tamed by). In the case of middle verbs with two arguments verb derivation results in the experiencer being placed in the ergative, and the argument placed in the absolutive.
See also
*
'Aliki
References
External links
An online French–Futunan dictionaryDatabase of audio recordings in Futunan (Fakafutuna) - basic Catholic prayers
{{DEFAULTSORT:Futunan Language
Futunic languages
Languages of Wallis and Futuna
Languages of New Caledonia