Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi
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Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (; ; 25 January 1743 – 10 March 1819) was a German philosopher, writer and socialite. He is best known for popularizing the concept of
nihilism Nihilism () encompasses various views that reject certain aspects of existence. There have been different nihilist positions, including the views that Existential nihilism, life is meaningless, that Moral nihilism, moral values are baseless, and ...
. He promoted the idea that it is the necessary result of Enlightenment thought and the philosophical systems of
Baruch Spinoza Baruch (de) Spinoza (24 November 163221 February 1677), also known under his Latinized pen name Benedictus de Spinoza, was a philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, who was born in the Dutch Republic. A forerunner of the Age of Enlightenmen ...
,
Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant (born Emanuel Kant; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German Philosophy, philosopher and one of the central Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works ...
,
Johann Gottlieb Fichte Johann Gottlieb Fichte (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German philosopher who became a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Ka ...
and
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (; 27 January 1775 – 20 August 1854), later (after 1812) von Schelling, was a German philosopher. Standard histories of philosophy make him the midpoint in the development of German idealism, situating him be ...
. Jacobi advocated ''Glaube'' (variously translated as
faith Faith is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept. In the context of religion, faith is " belief in God or in the doctrines or teachings of religion". According to the Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, faith has multiple definitions, inc ...
or "belief") and ''Offenbarung'' (
revelation Revelation, or divine revelation, is the disclosing of some form of Religious views on truth, truth or Knowledge#Religion, knowledge through communication with a deity (god) or other supernatural entity or entities in the view of religion and t ...
) instead of
speculative reason The modern division of philosophy into theoretical philosophy and practical philosophyImmanuel Kant, ''Lectures on Ethics'', Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 41 ("On Universal Practical Philosophy"). Original text: Immanuel Kant, ''Kant’s G ...
. According to one view, Jacobi can be seen to have anticipated present-day writers who criticize secular philosophy as relativistic and dangerous for religious faith. His aloofness from the '' Sturm and Drang'' movement was the basis of a brief friendship with
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Johann Wolfgang (von) Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German polymath who is widely regarded as the most influential writer in the German language. His work has had a wide-ranging influence on Western literature, literary, Polit ...
. However, belief can also be understood in terms of a commonsense realism or as a proto-phenomenolgical approach to the given, aimed at avoiding the pitfalls of dogmatic foundationism on the one hand and a pure subjectivism on the other. These interpretative debates around Jacobi's thought continue to this day. He was the younger brother of poet Johann Georg Jacobi and the father of the great psychiatrist Maximilian Jacobi.


Biography


Early life

He was born at
Düsseldorf Düsseldorf is the capital city of North Rhine-Westphalia, the most populous state of Germany. It is the second-largest city in the state after Cologne and the List of cities in Germany with more than 100,000 inhabitants, seventh-largest city ...
, the second son of a wealthy sugar merchant, and was educated for a commercial career, which included a brief apprenticeship at a merchant house in Frankfurt-am-Main during 1759. Following, he was sent to
Geneva Geneva ( , ; ) ; ; . is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland and the most populous in French-speaking Romandy. Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the ca ...
for general education. Jacobi, of a retiring, meditative disposition, associated himself at Geneva mainly with the literary and scientific circle (of which the most prominent member was Georges-Louis Le Sage). He studied closely the works of Charles Bonnet, as well as the political ideas of
Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Republic of Geneva, Genevan philosopher (''philosophes, philosophe''), writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment through ...
and
Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778), known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' Voltaire (, ; ), was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, philosopher (''philosophe''), satirist, and historian. Famous for his wit ...
. In 1763 he was recalled to Düsseldorf, and in the following year he married Elisbeth von Clermont and took over the management of his father's business. After a short time, he gave up his commercial career, and in 1770 he became a member of the council for the duchies of Jülich and Berg. He distinguished himself by his ability in financial affairs and his zeal in social reform. Jacobi kept up his interest in literary and philosophic matters by an extensive correspondence. His mansion at Pempelfort, near Düsseldorf, was the centre of a distinguished literary circle. He helped to found a new literary journal with Christoph Martin Wieland. Some of his earliest writings, mainly on practical or economic subjects, were published in '' Der Teutsche Merkur.'' Here too appeared in part the first of his philosophic works, ''Edward Allwill's Briefsammlung'' (1776), a combination of romance and speculation. This was followed in 1779 by ''Woldemar'', a philosophic novel, of very imperfect structure, but full of genial ideas, and giving the most complete picture of Jacobi's method of philosophizing. In 1779, he visited
Munich Munich is the capital and most populous city of Bavaria, Germany. As of 30 November 2024, its population was 1,604,384, making it the third-largest city in Germany after Berlin and Hamburg. Munich is the largest city in Germany that is no ...
following his appointment as minister and privy councillor for the Bavarian department of customs and commerce. He opposed the mercantilistic policies of Bavaria and intended to liberalize local customs and taxes; but, after a short stay there, differences with his colleagues and with the authorities of
Bavaria Bavaria, officially the Free State of Bavaria, is a States of Germany, state in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the list of German states by area, largest German state by land area, comprising approximately 1/5 of the total l ...
, as well as his unwillingness to engage in a power struggle, drove him back to Pempelfort. The experience as well as its aftermath led to the publication of two essays in which Jacobi defended
Adam Smith Adam Smith (baptised 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish economist and philosopher who was a pioneer in the field of political economy and key figure during the Scottish Enlightenment. Seen by some as the "father of economics"——— or ...
's theories of
political economy Political or comparative economy is a branch of political science and economics studying economic systems (e.g. Marketplace, markets and national economies) and their governance by political systems (e.g. law, institutions, and government). Wi ...
. These essays were followed in 1785 by the work which first brought Jacobi into prominence as a philosopher.


Pantheism controversy

A conversation with Gotthold Lessing in 1780 in which Lessing avowed that he knew no philosophy in the true sense of that word, save Spinozism, led him to a protracted study of Spinoza's works. After Lessing's death, just a couple of months later, Jacobi continued to engage with Spinozism in an exchange of letters with Lessing's close friend Moses Mendelssohn, which began in 1783. These letters, published with commentary by Jacobi as ''Briefe über die Lehre Spinozas'' (1785; 2nd ed., much enlarged and with important Appendices, 1789), expressed sharply and clearly Jacobi's strenuous objection to a dogmatic system in philosophy, and drew upon him the vigorous enmity of the Aufklärer. Jacobi was ridiculed for trying to reintroduce into philosophy the antiquated notion of unreasoning belief, was denounced as an enemy of reason, as a pietist, and as a
Jesuit The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
in disguise, and was especially attacked for his use of the ambiguous term "belief". His next important work, ''David Hume über den Glauben, oder Idealismus und Realismus'' (1787), was an attempt to show not only that the term '' Glaube'' had been used by the most eminent writers to denote what he had employed it for in the ''Letters on Spinoza'', but that the nature of the cognition of facts as opposed to the construction of inferences could not be otherwise expressed. In this writing, and especially in the Appendix, Jacobi came into contact with the critical philosophy, and subjected the Kantian view of knowledge to searching examination. In 1787, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi addressed, in his book On Faith, or Idealism and Realism, Kant's concept of "thing-in-itself." Jacobi agreed that the objective thing-in-itself cannot be directly known. However, he stated, it must be taken on faith. A subject must believe that there is a real object in the external world that is related to the representation or mental idea that is directly known. This faith or belief is a result of revelation or immediately known, but logically unproved, truth. The real existence of a thing-in-itself is revealed or disclosed to the observing subject. In this way, the subject directly knows the ideal, subjective representations that appear in the mind, and strongly believes in the real, objective thing-in-itself that exists outside of the mind. By presenting the external world as an object of faith, Jacobi legitimized belief and its theological associations. Schopenhauer would later state: "… reducing the external world to a matter of faith, he wanted merely to open a little door for faith in general…." Ironically, the Pantheism Controversy led later German philosophers and writers to take an interest in pantheism and Spinozism. Jacobi's
fideism Fideism ( ) is a standpoint or an epistemological theory which maintains that faith is independent of reason, or that reason and faith are hostile to each other and faith is superior at arriving at particular truths (see natural theology). The ...
remained unpopular, and instead his critique of Enlightenment rationalism led more German philosophers to explore
atheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the Existence of God, existence of Deity, deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the ...
and wrestle with the perceived loss of philosophical foundations for theism,
myth Myth is a genre of folklore consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society. For scholars, this is very different from the vernacular usage of the term "myth" that refers to a belief that is not true. Instead, the ...
, and
morality Morality () is the categorization of intentions, Decision-making, decisions and Social actions, actions into those that are ''proper'', or ''right'', and those that are ''improper'', or ''wrong''. Morality can be a body of standards or principle ...
. Jacobi and the Pantheism Controversy he ignited remain important in European intellectual history, because he formulated (albeit critically) one of the first systematic statements of nihilism and represents an early example of the death of God discourse.


Later life

The Pempelfort era came to an end in 1794 when the French Revolution spilled over into Germany following the outbreak of war with the French Republic. The occupation of Düsseldorf by French Troops forced him to resettle and for nearly ten years live in Holstein. There he became intimately acquainted with Karl Leonhard Reinhold (in whose Beitrage his important work, ''Uber das Unternehmen des Kriticismus, die Vernunft zu Verstande zu bringen'', was first published), and with Matthias Claudius, the editor of the ''Wandsbecker Bote''.


Atheism dispute

Gottlieb Fichte was dismissed from
Jena Jena (; ) is a List of cities and towns in Germany, city in Germany and the second largest city in Thuringia. Together with the nearby cities of Erfurt and Weimar, it forms the central metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 in ...
in 1799 as a result of a charge of atheism. He was accused of this in 1798, after publishing his essay "Ueber den Grund unsers Glaubens an eine göttliche Weltregierung" ("On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance"), which he had written in response to Friedrich Karl Forberg's essay "Development of the Concept of Religion", in his ''Philosophical Journal''. For Fichte, God should be conceived primarily in moral terms: "The living and efficaciously acting moral order is itself God. We require no other God, nor can we grasp any other" ("On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance"). Fichte's intemperate "Appeal to the Public" ("Appellation an das Publikum", 1799) as well as a more thoughtful response entitled “From a Private Letter” (1799), provoked F. H. Jacobi to publish ''Letter to Fichte'' (1799), in which he equated philosophy in general and Fichte's transcendental philosophy in particular with
nihilism Nihilism () encompasses various views that reject certain aspects of existence. There have been different nihilist positions, including the views that Existential nihilism, life is meaningless, that Moral nihilism, moral values are baseless, and ...
and the relation of his own philosophic principles to
theology Theology is the study of religious belief from a Religion, religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an Discipline (academia), academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itse ...
.


President of Academy of sciences and retirement

Soon after his return to Germany, Jacobi received a call to Munich in connection with the new academy of sciences just founded there. The loss of a considerable portion of his fortune induced him to accept this offer; he settled in Munich in 1804, and in 1807 became president of the academy. In 1811 appeared his last philosophic work, directed against Friedrich Schelling specially (''Von den göttlichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung''), the first part of which, a review of the ''Wandsbecker Bote'', had been written in 1798. A bitter reply from Schelling was left without answer by Jacobi, but gave rise to an animated controversy in which
Fries French fries, or simply fries, also known as chips, and finger chips (Indian English), are ''List of culinary knife cuts#Batonnet, batonnet'' or ''Julienning, julienne''-cut deep frying, deep-fried potatoes of disputed origin. They are prepa ...
and Baader took prominent part. In 1812 Jacobi retired from the office of president, and began to prepare a collected edition of his works. He died before this was completed. The edition of his writings was continued by his friend F. Koppen, and was completed in 1825. The works fill six volumes, of which the fourth is in three parts. To the second is prefixed an introduction by Jacobi, which is at the same time an introduction to his philosophy. The fourth volume has also an important preface.


Influence on his contemporaries


Controversy with Schelling

Jacobi and Schelling knew each other before the controversy. After being anointed as the president of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences (''Bavarian Akademie der Wissenschaften''), Jacobi worked along with Schelling as colleagues. As illustrated above, a great portion of Jacobi's work focused on opposing the Spinozist pantheism as well as
fatalism Fatalism is a belief and philosophical doctrine which considers the entire universe as a deterministic system and stresses the subjugation of all events, actions, and behaviors to fate or destiny, which is commonly associated with the cons ...
. From Jacobi's perspective, Schelling, his colleague as well as one of the most viral philosophers at that time, matches his criteria of pantheism perfectly. Jacobi holds a viewpoint that the Naturphilosophie of Schelling is essentially a philosophy without the transcendental realm: everything emerges from a unconditional nature (''natura naturans''), which leads to a conclusion that God is nature that is graspable by human reason, while not the "total other" in Christian traditions; in the meantime, the realm of faith, which is the central conception that Jacobi intended to restore, is faded in Schelling's
rationalism In philosophy, rationalism is the Epistemology, epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "the position that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge", often in contrast to ot ...
. Jacobi consequently published ''On the Divine Things (Von den göttlichen Dingen)'' in 1811, initiated the controversy towards Schelling. In this treatise, Jacobi condemns Schelling for he eliminates the freedom of God by integrating God into nature, whilst nature is a "whole" (''Ganzes'') that is manipulated by logical necessity or causality. According Christian tradition, God ought to be totally independent of all necessity. As for himself, Jacobi insists that the freedom of God manifests itself when God is acting as a ultimate cause, that operates free action (''handlung''), instead of being framed in logical necessity (nature, in this context). Correspondingly, Schelling responded Jacobi by his last publication ''Denkmal'' in next year. The way Schelling defended himself is re-emphasize his idea in his 1809 '' Philosophical Inquiries into the Essence of Human Freedom'' (''Freiheitschrift''). According to Schelling, the relationship between God and nature must be taken account to philosophy, or it will leave "an unnatural God and a godless nature". In other words, Schelling's reaction based on this viewpoint: freedom does not expel necessity but contains it. Schelling holds a quite Kantian position, claiming that freedom implies self-determination while not merely actions. Therefore, freedom does not present itself on actions, but on the obedience to certain rules that is not imposed from outside, but from within. To Schelling, since these rules emerge without the interference from outside, this is the indication of self-determinance of the nature, namely, freedom; additionally, it is this self-determinance that made freedom actions emphasized by Jacobi possible. In other words, in Schelling's discourse, freedom and necessity do not essentially expel each other, rather, freedom and necessity are ultimately one. Jacobi responded Schelling's self-defense in 1815, however, they did not reach any immediate result, because Jacobi died a few years later. Nonetheless, Schelling moved on to the construction of his late philosophy of revelation and mythology, whereas reflected his early system and reconsidered the value of Jacobi's thought--in his 1833 lectures on modern philosophy, and recognized him as a pioneer of the "positive philosophy". As Schelling notes,


Influences on Fichte's 1794 ''Wissenschaftslehre''

Although J.G. Fichte never directly mentioned Jacobi's name or cited his work in 1794 version of ''Wissenschaftslehre'', according to Wood, Fichte's work in fact explicitly expresses some proximity to Jacobi's thought. In Jacobi's 1785 work ''On the teachings of Spinoza in letters to Moses Mendelssohn'' (''Über die Lehre des Spinoza in Briefen an den Herrn Moses Mendelssohn''), he declared Here the structure we observed from Jacobi's text could be summurized as following: we as beings who possess "I", only manifest the "I" (namely, selfhood) when encounters Thou, that is the "other" surrounds us. Only when we encounter something other than ourselves, our sense of "self" could be confirmed. Hence, we may perceive a nexus and mutual dependency between I and Thou: I always come first, and then Thou confirms the existence of it. This pair of reflective determination echoes Fichte's work. In his 1794 ''Foundations of Science of Knowledge'' (''Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre''), Fichte adopted a methodology that he called "synthetic method". In the context of ''Foundations'', it presents itself in a mode of " thesis-antithesis-synthesis": "I" is absolutely posited at first, and then "Not-I" is posited as the antithesis of the former. Nevertheless, this process would be incomplete if it lacks the final step of synthesis. The synthesis method guarantees the relations between I and Not-I. In Fichtean discourse, this may possibly contain interpersonal relationships. Here we could tell the similarity between Jacobi and Fichte: Thou as in Jacobi's work is basically replaced by "Not-I" in Fichte's work. Even though Fichte never shown his source of idea, in a letter from him to Jacobi in April 1796, he expressed his appreciation of alignment between him and Jacobi. This could be seen as an evidence that Fichte's theory is inspired by Jacobi to a great extent. Jacobi's influence on Fichte is more explicit and openly admitted by Fichte himself on the topic of certainty and faith. Still, in Jacobi's ''Spinoza'' text, he wrote: To Jacobi, the concept he chosen to put in the position of unconditional certainty is God. By means of this presuppostion, Jacobi leaves room for faith in his philosophy, whereas this element already dissolved in
reason Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing valid conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. It is associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, religion, scien ...
in many proceeding philosophers. This move prevents, at least from Jacobi's point of view back in the time, the ontological
infinite regress Infinite regress is a philosophical concept to describe a series of entities. Each entity in the series depends on its predecessor, following a recursive principle. For example, the epistemic regress is a series of beliefs in which the justi ...
. Fichte adopted the same strategy as well. In §1 of the Foundations, Fichte stated: As we shall tell from the use of certain terms, Fichte concerned the same topic with Jacobi. Furthermore, this proximity in ways of searching for unconditional ontological foundation was directly acknowledged by Fichte:


Philosophical work

Jacobi's philosophy is essentially unsystematic. A fundamental view which underlies all his thinking is brought to bear in succession upon those systematic doctrines which appear to stand most sharply in contradiction to it, and any positive philosophic results are given only occasionally. The leading idea of the whole is that of the complete separation between understanding omprehensionand apprehension of real fact. For Jacobi, Understanding, or the logical faculty, is purely formal or elaborative, and its results never transcend the given material supplied to it. From the basis of immediate experience or perception thought proceeds by comparison and abstraction, establishing connections among facts, but remaining in its nature mediate and finite. The principle of reason and consequent, the necessity of thinking each given fact of perception as conditioned, impels understanding towards an endless series of identical propositions, the records of successive comparisons and abstractions. The province of the understanding is therefore strictly the region of the conditioned; to it the world must present itself as a mechanism. If, then, there is objective truth at all, the existence of real facts must be made known to us otherwise than through the logical faculty of thought; and, as the regress from conclusion to premises must depend upon something not itself capable of logical grounding, mediate thought implies the consciousness of immediate truth. It is impossible that there should be a God, for if so he would of necessity be finite. But a finite God, a God that is known, is no God. It is impossible that there should be liberty, for if so the mechanical order of phenomena, by means of which they are comprehensible, would be disturbed, and we should have an unintelligible world, coupled with the requirement that it shall be understood. Cognition, then, in the strict sense, occupies the middle place between sense perception, which is belief in matters of sense, and reason, which is belief in supersensuous fact. *The passage presents a one-sided portrayal of Jacobi, emphasizing his advocacy for Glaube (faith or belief) and revelation over speculative reason while aligning him with contemporary critics of secular philosophy. However, this interpretation is reductive and lacks nuance. Jacobi's philosophical contributions cannot be reduced to a binary opposition between faith and reason; his work also engaged deeply with Enlightenment thought, challenging its premises without wholly rejecting its intellectual rigor. *For instance, while Jacobi critiqued pure rationalism, he did not dismiss reason outright but rather sought to balance it with other dimensions of human experience. This nuanced position is often overlooked, leading to an oversimplified narrative that portrays him as solely a precursor to modern critiques of secularism. Moreover, the passage's selective emphasis on his relationships—such as his brief friendship with Goethe or his familial connections—overshadows the complexity of his philosophical legacy. *A more balanced account would acknowledge not only Jacobi's critique of Enlightenment rationalism but also his contributions to existential questions and his influence on thinkers like Kierkegaard. By omitting these facets, the text risks portraying Jacobi as an emblem of anti-secularism rather than as a multifaceted thinker grappling with the tensions between reason, faith, and revelation.


Reception

According to Stefan Schick, Jacobi was always "defamed as an apologist of religious faith and an enemy of reason" in both the 19th and 20th century. It was not until 1990s and 2000s, that the work of scholars such as Dieter Henrich, and specially Birgit Sandkaulen in her book ''Grund und Ursache'' (2000) revitalized the systematic reading of Jacobi for the first time. Moreover influential works such as Frederick Beiser's ''Fate of Reason'' (1987) still portray Jacobi as an anti-enlightenment, religious thinker.


Works

*Early essays in '' Der Teutsche Merkur''. Availabl
online
*''Edward Allwill’s Briefsammlung'' (1781). *''Etwas das Lessing gesagt hat'' (1782)
''Werke'', vol. 2, pp. 325-388
*''Über die Lehre des Spinoza in Briefen an den Herrn Moses Mendelssohn'' (1785). 2nd edition, 1789
NYPL
*''Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi wider Mendelssohns Beschuldigungen betreffend die Briefe über die Lehre des Spinoza'' (1786)
Oxford
*''David Hume über den Glauben, oder Idealismus und Realismus'' (1787)
University of Lausanne
*''Woldemar'' (1794). 2 volumes
Oxford
2nd edition, 1796
NYPL
*''Jacobi an Fichte'' (1799)
University of Michigan
Text 1799/1816, Italian Translation, 3 Appendices with Jacobi's and Fichte's complementary Texts, Commentary by A. Acerbi): La Scuola di Pitagora, Naples 2017, . *''Ueber das Unternehmen des Kriticismus'' (1801)
''Werke'', vol. 3, pp. 59-195
*''Ueber Gelehrte Gesellschaften, ihren Geist und Zweck'' (1807)
Harvard
*''Von den göttlichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung'' (1811)
University of California
*''Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi's Werke'' (1812–1825). **Volume 1, 1812
HarvardNYPLUniversity of MichiganUniversity of Michigan (Morris)
**Volume 2, 1815
HarvardNYPLUniversity of MichiganUniversity of Michigan (Morris)
**Volume 3, 1816
HarvardNYPLUniversity of MichiganUniversity of Michigan (Morris)
**Volume 4, 1819
Harvard
Parts 1 & 2
OxfordUniversity of Michigan (Morris)
***Part 1
NYPLUniversity of Michigan
***Part 2
NYPLUniversity of Michigan
***Part 3
NYPLUniversity of Michigan (Morris)
**Volume 5, 1820
HarvardNYPLUniversity of MichiganUniversity of Michigan (Morris)
**Volume 6, 1825
NYPLUniversity of Michigan (Morris)
*''Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi's auserlesener Briefwechsel'' (1825–27). 2 volumes. **Volume 1, 1825
HarvardUniversity of Michigan
**Volume 2, 1827
HarvardUniversity of Michigan


Notes


External links

* * * * *Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, George Di Giovanni (1994
"The Main Philosophical Writings and the Novel Allwill"
McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP, . . * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich 1743 births 1819 deaths Writers from Düsseldorf 19th-century German writers 19th-century German male writers 18th-century German novelists 18th-century German philosophers German Protestants People from Berg (state) Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences German male novelists Spinoza scholars 19th-century German philosophers German idealists