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(, "Free
The first were recruited by
(, "Free Corps
Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was first named as such in 1805. The size of a corps varies great ...
" or "Volunteer Corps
Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was first named as such in 1805. The size of a corps varies great ...
") were irregular German and other European military volunteer
A military volunteer (or ''war volunteer'') is a person who enlists in military service by free will, and is not a conscript, mercenary, or a foreign legionnaire. Volunteers sometimes enlist to fight in the armed forces of a foreign country, fo ...
units, or paramilitary, that existed from the 18th to the early 20th centuries. They effectively fought as mercenary
A mercenary, sometimes also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any ...
or private armies
Private or privates may refer to:
Music
* "In Private", by Dusty Springfield from the 1990 album ''Reputation''
* Private (band), a Denmark-based band
* "Private" (Ryōko Hirosue song), from the 1999 album ''Private'', written and also recorded ...
, regardless of their own nationality. In German-speaking countries, the first so-called ("free regiments", Freie Regimenter) were formed in the 18th century from native volunteers, enemy renegades, and deserters
Desertion is the abandonment of a military duty or post without permission (a pass, liberty or leave) and is done with the intention of not returning. This contrasts with unauthorized absence (UA) or absence without leave (AWOL ), which ...
. These, sometimes exotically equipped, units served as infantry and cavalry (or, more rarely, as artillery); sometimes in just company strength and sometimes in formations of up to several thousand strong. There were also various mixed formations or legions. The Prussian included infantry, jäger, dragoons and hussars
A hussar ( , ; hu, huszár, pl, husarz, sh, husar / ) was a member of a class of light cavalry, originating in Central Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. The title and distinctive dress of these horsemen were subsequently widely ...
. The French '' Volontaires de Saxe'' combined uhlan
Uhlans (; ; ; ; ) were a type of light cavalry, primarily armed with a lance. While first appearing in the cavalry of Lithuania and then Poland, Uhlans were quickly adopted by the mounted forces of other countries, including France, Russia, Pr ...
s and dragoons.
In the aftermath of World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
and during the German Revolution of 1918–19, consisting largely of World War I veterans were raised as paramilitary militias. They were ostensibly mustered to fight on behalf of the government against the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Russian SFSR or RSFSR ( rus, Российская Советская Федеративная Социалистическая Республика, Rossíyskaya Sovétskaya Federatívnaya Soci ...
backed German communists
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
** ...
attempting to overthrow the Weimar Republic
The German Reich, commonly referred to as the Weimar Republic,, was a historical period of Germany from 9 November 1918 to 23 March 1933, during which it was a constitutional federal republic for the first time in history; hence it is also r ...
. However, many also largely despised the Republic and were involved in assassinations of its supporters.
Origins
The first were recruited by Frederick the Great
Frederick II (german: Friedrich II.; 24 January 171217 August 1786) was King in Prussia from 1740 until 1772, and King of Prussia from 1772 until his death in 1786. His most significant accomplishments include his military successes in the S ...
during the Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that involved most of the European Great Powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War (1754– ...
. On 15 July 1759, Frederick ordered the creation of a squadron of volunteer hussars to be attached to the 1st Hussar Regiment (von Kleist's Own). He entrusted the creation and command of this new unit to Colonel Friedrich Wilhelm von Kleist. This first squadron (80 men) was raised in Dresden
Dresden (, ; Upper Saxon: ''Dräsdn''; wen, label=Upper Sorbian, Drježdźany) is the capital city of the German state of Saxony and its second most populous city, after Leipzig. It is the 12th most populous city of Germany, the fourth ...
and consisted mainly of Hungarian deserters. This squadron was placed under the command of Lieutenant Johann Michael von Kovacs. At the end of 1759, the first four squadrons of dragoons (also called horse grenadiers) of the were organised. They initially consisted of Prussian volunteers from Berlin, Magdeburg, Mecklenburg and Leipzig, but later recruited deserters. The were regarded as unreliable by regular armies, so they were used mainly as sentries and for minor duties.
These early appeared during the War of the Austrian Succession
The War of the Austrian Succession () was a European conflict that took place between 1740 and 1748. Fought primarily in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, the Atlantic and Mediterranean, related conflicts included King George' ...
and especially the Seven Years' War, when France, Prussia, and the Habsburg monarchy embarked on an escalation of petty warfare
Petty warfare (; ; ) is a form of irregular warfare where small units attack the enemy's support operation to ensure that the main force enjoys favorable conditions for decisive battles. Petty warfare can be used in both ground and naval combat. Th ...
while conserving their regular regiments. Even during the last Kabinettskrieg, the War of the Bavarian Succession
The War of the Bavarian Succession (; 3 July 1778 – 13 May 1779) was a dispute between the Austrian Habsburg monarchy and an alliance of Saxony and Prussia over succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian bra ...
, formations were formed in 1778. Germans, Hungarians, Poles, Lithuanians, and South Slavs
South Slavs are Slavic peoples who speak South Slavic languages and inhabit a contiguous region of Southeast Europe comprising the eastern Alps and the Balkan Peninsula. Geographically separated from the West Slavs and East Slavs by Austria, ...
, as well as Turks, Tatars
The Tatars ()Tatar
in the Collins English Dictionary is an umbrella term for different and Cossacks, were believed by all warring parties to be inherently good fighters. The nationality of many soldiers can no longer be ascertained as the ethnic origin was often described imprecisely in the regimental lists. Slavs (Croats, Serbs) were often referred to as "Hungarians" or just "Croats", and Muslim recruits (Albanians, Bosnians, Tatars) as "Turks". For Prussia, the
in the modern sense emerged in Germany during the course of the Napoleonic Wars. They fought not so much for money but for patriotic reasons, seeking to shake off the French
After
During World War II, there existed certain armed groups loyal to Nazi Germany, Germany that went under the name "Freikorps". These include:
* Sudetendeutsches Freikorps, a German nationalism, German nationalist paramilitary that fought against First Czechoslovak Republic, Czechoslovakia for annexation of the Sudetenland into Germany.
* Free Corps Denmark, a Denmark, Danish volunteer collaborationist group in the Waffen-SS that was founded by the National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark, and participated in the Operation Barbarossa, invasion of the Soviet Union.
* British Free Corps, a United Kingdom, British collaborationist Waffen-SS unit made up of British and Dominion prisoners of war.
in the Collins English Dictionary is an umbrella term for different and Cossacks, were believed by all warring parties to be inherently good fighters. The nationality of many soldiers can no longer be ascertained as the ethnic origin was often described imprecisely in the regimental lists. Slavs (Croats, Serbs) were often referred to as "Hungarians" or just "Croats", and Muslim recruits (Albanians, Bosnians, Tatars) as "Turks". For Prussia, the
Pandur
The Pandurs were any of several light infantry military units beginning with Trenck's Pandurs, used by the Kingdom of Hungary from 1741, fighting in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Silesian Wars. Others to follow included Vladimirescu' ...
s, who were made up of Croats and Serbs, were a clear model for the organization of such "free" troops. Frederick the Great created 14 "free infantry
Free infantry (german: Frei-Infanterie) units were autonomous military units established in the second half of the 18th century, which operated as light troops independently of armies using rigid linear tactics. They are not to be confused with the ...
" () units, mainly between 1756 and 1758, which were intended to be attractive to those soldiers who wanted military "adventure", but did not want to have to do military drill. A distinction should be made between the formed up to 1759 for the final years of the war, which operated independently and disrupted the enemy with surprise attacks, and the free infantry which consisted of various military branches (such as infantry, hussars, dragoons, ''jäger'') and were used in combination. They were often used to ward off Maria Theresa
Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina (german: Maria Theresia; 13 May 1717 – 29 November 1780) was ruler of the Habsburg dominions from 1740 until her death in 1780, and the only woman to hold the position '' suo jure'' (in her own right) ...
's Pandurs. In the era of linear tactics, light troops had been seen necessary for outpost, reinforcement and reconnaissance duties. During the war, eight such volunteer corps were set up:
* Trümbach's (Voluntaires de Prusse) (FI)
* Kleist's (FII)
* Glasenapp's Free Dragoons (F III)
* Schony's (F IV)
* Gschray's (F V)
* Bauer
Bauer is a German surname meaning "peasant" or "farmer". For notable people sharing the surname, see Bauer (surname).
Bauer may also refer to:
Education and literature
* Bauer's Lexicon, a dictionary of Biblical Greek
* Bauer College of Busin ...
's Free Hussars (F VI)
* Légion Britannique (FV - of the Electorate of Hanover
The Electorate of Hanover (german: Kurfürstentum Hannover or simply ''Kurhannover'') was an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire, located in northwestern Germany and taking its name from the capital city of Hanover. It was formally known as ...
)
* Volontaires Auxiliaires (F VI).
Because, with some exceptions, they were seen as undisciplined and less battleworthy, they were used for less onerous guard and garrison duties. In the so-called "petty wars", the interdicted enemy supply lines with guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which small groups of combatants, such as paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or irregulars, use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, raids, petty warfare, hit-and-run ...
. In the case of capture, their members were at risk of being executed as irregular fighters. In Prussia the , which Frederick the Great had despised as "vermin", were disbanded. Their soldiers were given no entitlement to pensions or invalidity payments.
In France, many corps continued to exist until 1776. They were attached to regular dragoon regiments as ''jäger'' squadrons. During the Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
, Austria recruited various of Slavic origin. The Slavonic Wurmser fought in Alsace. The combat effectiveness of the six Viennese (37,000 infantrymen and cavalrymen), however, was low. An exception were the border regiments of Croats and Serbs who served permanently on the Austro-Ottoman
Ottoman is the Turkish spelling of the Arabic masculine given name Uthman ( ar, عُثْمان, ‘uthmān). It may refer to:
Governments and dynasties
* Ottoman Caliphate, an Islamic caliphate from 1517 to 1924
* Ottoman Empire, in existence fro ...
border.
Napoleonic era
in the modern sense emerged in Germany during the course of the Napoleonic Wars. They fought not so much for money but for patriotic reasons, seeking to shake off the French Confederation of the Rhine
The Confederated States of the Rhine, simply known as the Confederation of the Rhine, also known as Napoleonic Germany, was a confederation of German client states established at the behest of Napoleon some months after he defeated Austria a ...
. After the French under Emperor Napoleon had either conquered the German states or forced them to collaborate, remnants of the defeated armies continued to fight on in this fashion. Famous formations included the King's German Legion
The King's German Legion (KGL; german: Des Königs Deutsche Legion, semantically erroneous obsolete German variations are , , ) was a British Army unit of mostly expatriated German personnel during the period 1803–16. The legion achieved t ...
, who had fought for Britain in French-occupied Spain and mainly were recruited from Hanoverians, the Lützow Free Corps
Lützow Free Corps ( ) was a volunteer force of the Prussian army during the Napoleonic Wars. It was named after its commander, Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow. The Corpsmen were also widely known as the “''Lützower Jäger''“ or “''Schwarz ...
and the Black Brunswickers
The Brunswick Ducal Field-Corps (german: Herzoglich Braunschweigisches Feldcorps), commonly known as the Black Brunswickers in English and the ''Schwarze Schar'' (Black Troop, Black Horde, or Black Host) or ''Schwarze Legion'' (Black Legion) in G ...
.
The attracted many nationally disposed citizens and students. commanders such as Ferdinand von Schill
Ferdinand Baptista von Schill (6 January 1776 – 31 May 1809) was a Prussian major who revolted unsuccessfully against French domination of Prussia in May 1809.
Schill's rebellion ended at the Battle of Stralsund, a battle which also saw Sch ...
, Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow
Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm Freiherr von Lützow (18 May 17826 December 1834) was a Prussian general notable for his organization and command of the '' Lützow Freikorps'' of volunteers during the Napoleonic Wars.
Early life
Lützow was born in Berlin ...
or Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel
Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (german: Friedrich Wilhelm; 9 October 1771 – 16 June 1815), was a German prince and Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Oels. Nicknamed "The Black Duke", he was a military officer who led th ...
, known as the "Black Duke", led their own attacks on Napoleonic occupation forces in Germany. Those led by Schill were decimated in the Battle of Stralsund (1809)
The Battle of Stralsund on 31 May 1809 was a battle during the Dano-Swedish War of 1808–1809 and Franco-Swedish War, part of the Napoleonic Wars, between Ferdinand von Schill's freikorps and Napoleonic forces in Stralsund. In a "viciou ...
; many were killed in battle or executed at Napoleon's command in the aftermath. The were very popular during the period of the German War of Liberation (1813–15), during which von Lützow, a survivor of Schill's , formed his Lützow Free Corps. The anti-Napoleonic often operated behind French lines as a kind of commando or guerrilla force.
Throughout the 19th century, these anti-Napoleonic were greatly praised and glorified by German nationalists, and a heroic myth built up around their exploits. This myth was invoked, in considerably different circumstances, in the aftermath of Germany's defeat in World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
.
1815–71
Even in the aftermath of the Napoleonic era, were set up with varying degrees of success. During the March 1848 riots, student were set up in Munich. InFirst Schleswig War
The First Schleswig War (german: Schleswig-Holsteinischer Krieg) was a military conflict in southern Denmark and northern Germany rooted in the Schleswig-Holstein Question, contesting the issue of who should control the Duchies of Schleswig, ...
of 1848 the of ''von der Tann'', ''Zastrow'' and others distinguished themselves.
In 1864 in Mexico, the French formed the so-called ''Contreguerrillas'' under former Prussian hussar officer, Milson. In Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
, Garibaldi
Giuseppe Maria Garibaldi ( , ;In his native Ligurian language, he is known as ''Gioxeppe Gaibado''. In his particular Niçard dialect of Ligurian, he was known as ''Jousé'' or ''Josep''. 4 July 1807 – 2 June 1882) was an Italian general, patr ...
formed his famous '' Freischars'', notably the "Thousand of Marsala", which landed in Sicily in 1860.
Even before the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71, were developed in France that were known as franc-tireur
(, French for "free shooters") were irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). The term was revived and used by partisans to name two major French Resistance movements set ...
s.
Post–World War I
After World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
, the meaning of the word Freikorps changed compared to its past iterations. After 1918, the term referred to various —yet, still, loosely affiliated — paramilitary organizations that sprang up across Germany following the country's defeat in World War I. Of the numerous Weimar paramilitary groups
Paramilitary groups were formed throughout the Weimar Republic in the wake of Imperial Germany's defeat in World War I and the ensuing German Revolution. Some were created by political parties to help in recruiting, discipline and in preparatio ...
active during that time, the Freikorps were, and remain, the most notable. While exact numbers are difficult to determine, historians agree that some 500,000 men were formal Freikorps members with another 1.5 million men participating informally.
Amongst the social, political, and economic upheavals that marked the early years of the Weimar Republic
The German Reich, commonly referred to as the Weimar Republic,, was a historical period of Germany from 9 November 1918 to 23 March 1933, during which it was a constitutional federal republic for the first time in history; hence it is also r ...
, the tenuous German government under Friedrich Ebert
Friedrich Ebert (; 4 February 187128 February 1925) was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the first president of Germany from 1919 until his death in office in 1925.
Ebert was elected leader of the SPD on ...
, leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (, SPD), utilized the Freikorps to quell socialist and communist uprisings. Minister of Defence and SPD member Gustav Noske
Gustav Noske (9 July 1868 – 30 November 1946) was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party (SPD). He served as the first Minister of Defence (''Reichswehrminister'') of the Weimar Republic between 1919 and 1920. Noske has been a cont ...
also relied on the Freikorps to suppress the German Revolution of 1918-19
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ger ...
as well as the Marxist Spartacist League
The Spartacus League (German: ''Spartakusbund'') was a Marxist revolutionary movement organized in Germany during World War I. It was founded in August 1914 as the "International Group" by Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Liebknecht, Clara Zetkin, and othe ...
, culminating in the summary execution
A summary execution is an execution in which a person is accused of a crime and immediately killed without the benefit of a Right to a fair trial, full and fair trial. Executions as the result of summary offense, summary justice (such as a drumhea ...
of revolutionary communist leaders Karl Liebknecht
Karl Paul August Friedrich Liebknecht (; 13 August 1871 – 15 January 1919) was a German socialist and anti-militarist. A member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) beginning in 1900, he was one of its deputies in the Reichstag fro ...
and Rosa Luxemburg
Rosa Luxemburg (; ; pl, Róża Luksemburg or ; 5 March 1871 – 15 January 1919) was a Polish and naturalised-German revolutionary socialism, revolutionary socialist, Marxism, Marxist philosopher and anti-war movement, anti-war activist. Succ ...
on 15 January 1919.
Freikorps involvement in Germany and Eastern Europe
Bavarian Soviet Republic
TheBavarian Soviet Republic
The Bavarian Soviet Republic, or Munich Soviet Republic (german: Räterepublik Baiern, Münchner Räterepublik),Hollander, Neil (2013) ''Elusive Dove: The Search for Peace During World War I''. McFarland. p.283, note 269. was a short-lived unre ...
was a short-lived and unrecognized socialist-communist state from 12 April 1919 - 3 May 1919 in Bavaria during the German Revolution of 1918-19
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ger ...
. Following a series of political revolts and takeovers from German socialists and then Russian-backed Bolsheviks, Noske Noske is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Anja Noske (born 1986), German rower
* Barbara Noske, Dutch cultural anthropologist and philosopher
*Bernd Noske (1946-2014), German musician
*Gustav Noske (1868–1946), German ...
responded from Berlin by sending various Freikorps brigades to Bavaria in late April totalling some 30,000 men. The brigades included Hermann Ehrhardt's second Marine Brigade Freikorps, the Gorlitz Freikorps under Lieutenant Colonel Faupel, and two Swabian divisions from Württemberg
Württemberg ( ; ) is a historical German territory roughly corresponding to the cultural and linguistic region of Swabia. The main town of the region is Stuttgart.
Together with Baden and Hohenzollern, two other historical territories, Wür ...
under General Haas and Major Hirl as well as the largest Freikorps in Bavaria commanded by Colonel Franz Ritter von Epp.
While they were met with little Communist resistance, the Freikorps nonetheless acted with particular brutality and violence under Noske's blessing and at the behest of Major Schulz, adjutant of the Lützow Freikorps Lützow can refer to:
* Lützow, Germany, a municipality in the district of Nordwestmecklenburg in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania in Germany
* Lützow, original name of Charlottenburg
* Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow (1782–1834), a Prussian li ...
, who reminded his men that it " asa lot better to kill a few innocent people than to let one guilty person escape" and that there was no place in his ranks for those whose conscience bothered them. On 5 May 1919, Lieutenant Georg Pölzing, one of Schulz's officers, travelled to the town of Perlach outside of Munich
Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the third-largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Ha ...
. There, Pölzing chose a dozen alleged communist workers — none of whom were actually communists, but members of the Social Democratic Party
The name Social Democratic Party or Social Democrats has been used by many political parties in various countries around the world. Such parties are most commonly aligned to social democracy as their political ideology.
Active parties
Fo ...
— and shot them on the spot. The following day, a Freikorps patrol led by Captain Alt-Sutterheim interrupted the meeting of a local Catholic club, the St Joseph Society, and chose twenty of the thirty members present to be shot, beaten, and bayoneted to death. A memorial on Pfanzeltplatz in Munich
Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the third-largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Ha ...
commemorates the incident. Historian Nigel Jones notes that as a result of the Freikorps' violence, Munich's undertakers were overwhelmed, resulting in bodies lying in the streets and decaying until mass graves were completed.
Eastern Europe
The Freikorps also fought against communists andBolsheviks
The Bolsheviks (russian: Большевики́, from большинство́ ''bol'shinstvó'', 'majority'),; derived from ''bol'shinstvó'' (большинство́), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority". also known in English ...
in Eastern Europe, most notably East Prussia
East Prussia ; german: Ostpreißen, label= Low Prussian; pl, Prusy Wschodnie; lt, Rytų Prūsija was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773 to 1829 and again from 1878 (with the Kingdom itself being part of the German Empire from 1 ...
, Latvia
Latvia ( or ; lv, Latvija ; ltg, Latveja; liv, Leţmō), officially the Republic of Latvia ( lv, Latvijas Republika, links=no, ltg, Latvejas Republika, links=no, liv, Leţmō Vabāmō, links=no), is a country in the Baltic region of ...
, Silesia
Silesia (, also , ) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at around 8,000,000. Silesia is spli ...
, and Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, , is a country in Central Europe. Poland is divided into Voivodeships of Poland, sixteen voivodeships and is the fifth most populous member state of the European Union (EU), with over 38 mill ...
. The Freikorps demonstrated fervent anti-Slavic racism and viewed Slavs and Bolsheviks
The Bolsheviks (russian: Большевики́, from большинство́ ''bol'shinstvó'', 'majority'),; derived from ''bol'shinstvó'' (большинство́), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority". also known in English ...
as "sub-human" hordes of "ravening wolves". To justify their campaign in the East, the Freikorps launched a campaign of propaganda that falsely positioned themselves as protectors of Germany's territorial hegemony over Lithuania, Latvia
Latvia ( or ; lv, Latvija ; ltg, Latveja; liv, Leţmō), officially the Republic of Latvia ( lv, Latvijas Republika, links=no, ltg, Latvejas Republika, links=no, liv, Leţmō Vabāmō, links=no), is a country in the Baltic region of ...
, and Estonia
Estonia, formally the Republic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and t ...
as a result of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (also known as the Treaty of Brest in Russia) was a separate peace treaty signed on 3 March 1918 between Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire), that ended Russia's ...
and as defenders against Slavic and Bolshevik hordes that "raped women and butchered children" in their wake. Historian Nigel Jones highlights the Freikorps'"usual excesses" of violence and murder in Latvia which were all the more unrestrained since they were fighting in a foreign land versus their own country. Hundreds were murdered in the Freikorps' Eastern campaigns, such as the massacre of 500 Latvian
Latvian may refer to:
*Something of, from, or related to Latvia
**Latvians, a Baltic ethnic group, native to what is modern-day Latvia and the immediate geographical region
**Latvian language, also referred to as Lettish
**Latvian cuisine
**Latvi ...
civilians suspected of harbouring bolshevik
The Bolsheviks (russian: Большевики́, from большинство́ ''bol'shinstvó'', 'majority'),; derived from ''bol'shinstvó'' (большинство́), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority". also known in English ...
sympathies or the capture of Riga
Riga (; lv, Rīga , liv, Rīgõ) is the capital and largest city of Latvia and is home to 605,802 inhabitants which is a third of Latvia's population. The city lies on the Gulf of Riga at the mouth of the Daugava river where it meets the B ...
which saw the Freikorps slaughter some 3,000 people. Summary executions
Summary may refer to:
* Abstract (summary), shortening a passage or a write-up without changing its meaning but by using different words and sentences
* Epitome, a summary or miniature form
* Abridgement, the act of reducing a written w ...
via firing squads were most common, but several Freikorps members recorded the brutal and deadly beatings of suspected communists and particularly communist women.
Freikorps identity and ideals
Freikorps ranks were composed primarily of formerWorld War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
soldiers who, upon demobilization, were unable to reintegrate into civilian society having been brutalized by the violence of the war physically and mentally. Combined with the government's poor support of veterans, who were dismissed as being hysterical when suffering from post-traumatic disorder, many German veterans found comfort and a sense of belonging in the Freikorps. Jason Crouthamel notes how the Freikorps' military structure was a familiar continuation of the frontlines, emulating the ''Kampfgemeinschaft'' (battle community) and ''Kameradschaft'' (camaraderie), thus preserving "the heroic spirit of comradeship in the trenches". Others, angry at Germany's sudden, seemingly inexplicable defeat, joined the Freikorps in an effort to fight against communism and socialism in Germany or to exact some form of revenge on those they considered responsible. To a lesser extent, German youth who were not old enough to have served in World War I enlisted in the Freikorps in hopes of proving themselves as patriots and as men.
Regardless of reasons for joining, modern German historians agree that men of the Freikorps consistently embodied post- Enlightenment masculine ideals that are characterized by "physical, emotional, and moral 'hardness'". Described as "children of the trenches, spawned by war" and its process of brutalization, historians argue that Freikorps men idealized a militarized masculinity of aggression, physical domination, the absence of emotion (hardness). They were to be as "swift as greyhounds, tough as leather, [and] hard as Krupp steel" so as to defend what remained of German conservatism in times of social chaos, confusion, and revolution that came to define the immediate Interwar period, interwar era. Although World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
ended in Germany's surrender, many men in the Freikorps nonetheless viewed themselves as soldiers still engaged in active warfare with enemies of the traditional German empire such as communists and Bolsheviks
The Bolsheviks (russian: Большевики́, from большинство́ ''bol'shinstvó'', 'majority'),; derived from ''bol'shinstvó'' (большинство́), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority". also known in English ...
, Jews, Social Democratic Party of Germany, socialists, and Pacifism, pacifists. Prominent Freikorps member Ernst von Solomon described his troops as "full of wild demand for revenge and action and adventure…a band of fighter…full of lust, exultant in anger." Expanding upon this, in Klaus Theweleit's two-volume study of Freikorps masculinity and identity, ''Male Fantasies (1977 publication), Male Fantasies'', Theweleit argues that men in the Freikorps radicalized Western and German norms of male self-control, as well as about cold, tough, and hard masculinity, into a perpetual war against their very antithesis, women and femininity — most notably femininely-coded desires for domesticity, tenderness, and compassion within men. Historians Nigel Jones and Thomas Kühne agree with Theweleit's gendered framework of understanding masculinity within the Freikorps, noting that their displays of violence, terror, and male aggression and solidarity established the beginnings of the fascist New Man (utopian concept), New Man that the Nazi Party, Nazis built upon.
Demobilization
The extent of the Freikorps' involvement and actions in Eastern Europe, where they demonstrated full autonomy and rejected orders from the Reichswehr and German government, left a negative impression with the state. By this time, the Freikorps had served Friedrich Ebert, Ebert's purpose of suppressing revolts and communist uprisings. After the failed Kapp Putsch, Kapp-Lütwitz Putsch in March 1920 that the Freikorps participated in, the Freikorps' autonomy and strength steadily declined as Hans von Seeckt, commander of the Reichswehr, removed all Freikorps members from the army and restricted the movements' access to future funding and equipment from the government. Von Seeckt was successful, and by 1921 only a small yet devoted core remained, effectively drawing an end to the Freikorps until their resurgence as far-right thugs and street brawlers for the Nazi Party, Nazis beginning in 1923.Affiliation with the Nazi Party
The rise of the Nazi Party led to a resurgence of Freikorps activity, as many members or ex-members were drawn to the party's marrying of military and political life and extreme nationalism by joining the ''Sturmabteilung'' (SA) and ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS). Unlike in theGerman Revolution of 1918-19
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ger ...
or their involvement in Eastern Europe, the Freikorps now had almost no military value and were instead utilized by the Nazis as thugs to engage in street brawls with communists and to break up communist and socialist meetings alongside the Sturmabteilung, SA to gain a political edge. Moreover, the Nazis elevated the Freikorps as a symbol of pure German nationalism, anti-communism, and militarized masculinity to co-opt the lingering social and political support of the movement.
Eventually, Adolf Hitler came to view the Freikorps as a nuisance and possible threat to his consolidation of power. During the Night of the Long Knives in 1934, an internal purge of Hitler's enemies within the Nazi Party, numerous Freikorps members and leaders were targeted for killing or arrest, including Freikorps commander Hermann Ehrhardt and Sturmabteilung, SA leader Ernst Röhm. In Hitler's Reichstag (Nazi Germany), Reichstag speech following the purge, Hitler denounced the Freikorps as lawless "moral degenerates…aimed at the destruction of all existing institutions" and as "pathological enemies of the state…[and] enemies of all authority," despite his previous public adoration of the movement.
Nazi Legacy
Numerous future members and leader of the Nazi Party served in the Freikorps. Martin Bormann, eventual head of the Nazi party Chancellery and Private Secretary to Hitler joined the Gerhard Roßbach, Gerhard Roßbach's Freikorps in Mecklenburg as a Section leader and quartermaster. Reich Farmers' Leader and Minister of Food and Agriculture Richard Walther Darré was part of the Berlin Freikorps. Reinhard Heydrich, future chief of the Reich Security Main Office (including the Gestapo, Kriminalpolizei, Kripo, and Sicherheitspolizei, SD) and initiator of the Final Solution, was in the Georg Ludwig Rudolf Maercker's Freikorps as a teenager. Leader of the Schutzstaffel, SS Heinrich Himmler enlisted in the Freikorps and carried a flag in the Beer Hall Putsch, 1923 Beerhall Putsch. Rudolf Höss joined the East Prussia, East Prussian Volunteer Freikorps in 1919 and eventually became commander of the Auschwitz concentration camp, Auschwitz extermination camp. Ernst Ernst Röhm, Röhm, eventual leader of the Sturmabteilung, SA, supported various Bavaria, Bavarian Freikorps groups, funnelling them arms and cash.
Freikorps groups and divisions
* Freikorps in the Baltic, Iron Division (Eiserne Division, related to Eiserne Brigade and Baltische Landeswehr) ** Fought in the Baltic. ** Defeated by the Estonian Army and Latvian Army in the Battle of Cēsis (1919), Battle of Cēsis ** Trapped in Thorensberg by the Latvian Army. Rescued by the Rossbach Freikorps. * Volunteer Division of Horse Guards (Garde-Kavallerie-Schützendivision) ** KilledRosa Luxemburg
Rosa Luxemburg (; ; pl, Róża Luksemburg or ; 5 March 1871 – 15 January 1919) was a Polish and naturalised-German revolutionary socialism, revolutionary socialist, Marxism, Marxist philosopher and anti-war movement, anti-war activist. Succ ...
and Karl Liebknecht
Karl Paul August Friedrich Liebknecht (; 13 August 1871 – 15 January 1919) was a German socialist and anti-militarist. A member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) beginning in 1900, he was one of its deputies in the Reichstag fro ...
, 15 January 1919
** Led by Captain Waldemar Pabst
** Disbanded on order of Defence Minister Gustav Noske
Gustav Noske (9 July 1868 – 30 November 1946) was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party (SPD). He served as the first Minister of Defence (''Reichswehrminister'') of the Weimar Republic between 1919 and 1920. Noske has been a cont ...
, 7 July 1919, after Pabst threatened to kill him
* Freikorps Caspari
** Fought against the Bremen Soviet Republic
** Fought under the command of Walter Caspari
* Freikorps Lichtschlag
** Fought against the Red Ruhr Army
** Fought under the command of Oskar von Watter
*
** Under the command of Franz Ritter von Epp
** Members include: Ernst Röhm, Rudolf Hess, Eduard Dietl, Hans Frank, Gregor Strasser and Otto Strasser.
*
** Occupied Munich following the revolution of April 1919.
** Commanded by Major Schulz
* Marinebrigade Ehrhardt (The Second Naval Brigade)
** Participated in the Kapp Putsch of 1920
** Disbanded members eventually formed the Organisation Consul, which performed hundreds of political assassinations
* Marinebrigade Loewenfeld (The Third Naval Brigade)
** Participated in the Kapp Putsch of 1920
* (Maercker's Volunteer Rifles, or )
** Founded by Ludwig Maercker
** Members include: Reinhard Heydrich, Eggert Reeder, Ernst von Salomon, Alfred Toepfer and Walter Warlimont
* Freikorps Oberland
** Kurt Benson
* (Rossbach)
** Founded by Gerhard Roßbach
** Rescued the Iron Division after an extremely long march across Eastern Europe.
** Members include: Kurt Daluege and Rudolph Hoess
*
** Formed by Czech German nationalists with Nazi sympathies which operated from 1938 to 1939
** Part of Hitler's successful effort to absorb Czechoslovakia into the Third Reich
World War II
During World War II, there existed certain armed groups loyal to Nazi Germany, Germany that went under the name "Freikorps". These include:
* Sudetendeutsches Freikorps, a German nationalism, German nationalist paramilitary that fought against First Czechoslovak Republic, Czechoslovakia for annexation of the Sudetenland into Germany.
* Free Corps Denmark, a Denmark, Danish volunteer collaborationist group in the Waffen-SS that was founded by the National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark, and participated in the Operation Barbarossa, invasion of the Soviet Union.
* British Free Corps, a United Kingdom, British collaborationist Waffen-SS unit made up of British and Dominion prisoners of war.
Use in other countries
France
In French Third Republic, France, a similar group (but unrelated to the Freikorps) were the "Corps Franc". Starting in October 1939, the French Army raised a number of Corps Franc units with the mission of carrying out ambush, raid, and harassing operations forward of the Maginot Line during the period known as the Phoney War, Phoney War (Drôle de Guerre). They were tasked with attacking German troops guarding the Siegfried Line. Future Vichy France, Vichy Collaborationism#France, collaborationist, Anti-communism, Anti-Bolshevik and Waffen-SS, SS Sturmbannführer, Major Joseph Darnand was one of the more famous participants in these commando actions. In May 1940, the experience of the Phoney War-era Corps Franc was an influence in creating the Groupes Franc Motorisé de Cavalerie, Groupes Francs Motorisé de Cavalerie (GFC) who played a storied role in the delaying operations and last stands of the Battle of France, notably in the defenses of Battle of France#Weygand Plan, the Seine and Battle of Saumur (1940), the Loire. Between April – September 1944, the Corps Franc de la Montagne Noire unit operated as part of the French Resistance.Corps Francs d'Afrique
On 25 November 1942, in the immediate aftermath of the Operation Torch, Allied Invasion of Vichy French North Africa the Corps Francs d'Afrique (CFA) (African Corps Franc) was raised in French protectorate in Morocco, French Morocco within the Free French Forces by Henri Giraud, General Giraud. Giraud drew the members of the all-volunteer unit from residents of Northern Africa of diverse religious backgrounds (Christian, Jew, and Muslim) and gave them the title of ''Vélite'', a name inspired by the elite light infantry of Napoleon, Napoleon's Imperial Guard (Napoleon I), Imperial Guard, who were named after the Roman army of the mid-Republic, Roman Velites. Much of the Corps was drawn from Henri d'Astier de la Vigerie and José Aboulker's Géo Gras Group, Géo Gras French Resistance, French Resistance Group which had been responsible for the Géo Gras Group#November 8, 1942, Algiers Insurrection where the Resistance seized control of Algiers on the night of 8 November 1942 in coordination with the Operation Torch, Allied landings happening that same night. In taking over Algiers, they managed to capture both François Darlan, Admiral Darlan and Alphonse Juin, General Juin, which led to the François Darlan#Darlan's deal in North Africa, Darlan Deal wherein Vichy France, Vichy French forces came over to the Allied side. François Darlan, Darlan was later assassinated by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, an early member of the Corps Francs d'Afrique. They functioned as the Free French Forces, Free French equivalent to the British Army, British Commandos (United Kingdom), Commandos. The Corps also included many Spanish and International old combatants of the Spanish Republican Army, which had sought refuge in Northern Africa in 1939. The Corps Francs d'Afrique, under command of Joseph de Goislard de Monsabert, went on to fight Erwin Rommel, Rommel's Afrikakorps in Tunisian Campaign, Tunisia with the U.S. United States Army North#World War II, 5th Army. They fought alongside the 139th (Sherwood Foresters) Brigade, British 139th Brigade at Battle of Kassarine Pass, Kassarine and Operation Ochsenkopf, Sidi Nasr, where they famously conducted a heroic bayonet charge, facing two to one odds, against the Military history of Italy during World War II, Italian Bersaglieri, 34th Battalion of the 10th Bersaglieri near the mountain of Sejnane, Kef Zilia on the road to Bizerte, taking 380 prisoners, killing the Italian battalion commander, and capturing the plans for Operation Ausladung. They participated in Tunisian Campaign#Battle, the capture of Bizerte in May 1943. For its actions, the Corps Franc d'Afrique was awarded the Croix de Guerre. The CFA formally was dissolved on 9 July 1943, with its members and equipment forming the corps of the newly created Groupe des Commandos d'Afrique, African Commando Group (GCA) on 13 July 1943 in Damous, Dupleix, French Algeria, Algeria, today seen as a forebear to the postwar 11e régiment parachutiste de choc, Parachutist Shock Battalions and the modern day 13th Parachute Dragoon Regiment, 13th RDP. The GCA went on to fight at Pianosa#History, Pianosa, Invasion of Elba, Elba, Operation Avalanche, Salerno, Operation Dragoon, Provence, 1st Army (France)#1944–1945, Belfort, Fort de Giromagny, Giromagny, Battle of Alsace, Alsace, Cernay, Haut-Rhin#Second World War, Cernay, Guebwiller, Buhl, Bas-Rhin, Buhl, and the Western Allied invasion of Germany, Invasion of Germany.See also
*Awards of the German Freikorps, Freikorps Awards *Landsknecht *List of defunct Paramilitary Organizations * List of Free Corps * List of Freikorps members * List of paramilitary organizations * Organisation Consul * Freikorps Sauerland * Battle of Annaberg * Free Corps Denmark * Viking League related Freikorps activities * Free company Medieval units with some similarities * HeimwehrReferences
Notes Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *External links
* {{Authority control Freikorps, Military units and formations established in 1759 1759 establishments in Prussia 1918 establishments in Germany Military units and formations established in 1918 Military units and formations disestablished in 1939 1939 disestablishments in Germany Anti-communism in Germany Military history of Germany Political repression in Germany Terrorism in Germany Counter-revolutionaries German Revolution of 1918–1919 Right-wing politics in Europe