Forest integrated pest management or Forest IPM is the practice of monitoring and managing pest and

environmental Environment most often refers to: __NOTOC__ * Natural environment, referring respectively to all living and non-living things occurring naturally and the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism ...

information with

pest control Pest control is the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest (organism), pest; such as any animal, plant or fungus that impacts adversely on human activities or environment. The human response depends on the importance of the da ...

methods to prevent pest damage to

forest A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense ecological community, community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, ...

s and forest habitats by the most economical means.

Application

Forest IPM practices vary from region to region and particularly by state, according to the habitat and forests present. Forest integrated pest management or Forest IPM combines cultural, biological and chemical technologies to reduce pest damage to levels below those that of economic damage. Forest IPM is utilized for the whole life of the tree, from site prep to harvest. An IPM treatment is utilized before the cost of the treatment is equal to the reduction in crop value due to past injury, which is called the economic injury level. Forest integrated pest management has a strong emphasis on intensive forest management. The main components of forest integrated pest management are how pest populations change over time, forest stand susceptibility and resistance to pests, pest impact on crop value, and control strategies. Forest IPM is designed to provide the information needed to deal with multiple pest problems in a way that promotes

forest management Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes man ...

objectives. In the state of

Vermont Vermont () is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York (state), New York to the west, and the Provinces and territories of Ca ...

, two common pests are of particular significance, the

Hemlock Woolly Adelgid ''Adelges tsugae'', the hemlock woolly adelgid () or HWA, is an insect of the order Hemiptera (true bugs) native to East Asia. It feeds by sucking sap from hemlock and spruce trees ('' Tsuga'' spp.; '' Picea'' spp.). In its native range, HWA ...

or HWA, and

thrip Thrips (order Thysanoptera) are minute (mostly long or less), slender insects with fringed wings and unique asymmetrical mouthparts. Entomologists have described approximately 7,700 species. They fly only weakly and their feathery wings are ...

Practices of IPM

Preventive

Preventive practices of forest integrated pest management include training, detection, diagnosis and evaluation and exclusion. These are actions that can be done to prevent pest

infestation Infestation is the state of being invaded or overrun by pests or parasites. It can also refer to the actual organisms living on or within a host. Terminology In general, the term "infestation" refers to parasitic diseases caused by animals su ...

s from reaching levels of concern. Training employees to find early signs of pest occurrence will help landowners find and remove infected trees before the infestation spreads. Cleaning equipment before moving to different stands and when first brought onto the property will remove any contaminates that could affect the forest.

Cultural

Intensive forest management can be described as the cultural practices in forest integrated pest management. Cultural practices are done during the growth of the crop trees and also in the form of site prep and harvest practices. These practices range from choosing a good site with adequate drainage to the having an appropriate tree per acer (TPA).

Seedling A seedling is a young sporophyte developing out of a plant embryo from a seed. Seedling development starts with germination of the seed. A typical young seedling consists of three main parts: the radicle (embryonic root), the hypocotyl (embry ...

density is very important in tree nurseries. Having seedlings with a too high density promotes foliage disease fungi since airflow is reduced. The seedlings will also have more competition between themselves with a higher density, and this will reduce the quality of each seedling. The recommended density for

longleaf pine The longleaf pine (''Pinus palustris'') is a pine species native to the Southeastern United States, found along the coastal plain from East Texas to southern Virginia, extending into northern and central Florida. In this area it is also known as ...

is 50–90 per square meter and loblolly and

slash pine ''Pinus elliottii'', commonly known as slash pine,Family, P. P. (1990). Pinus elliottii Engelm. slash pine. ''Silvics of North America: Conifers'', (654), 338. is a Pinophyta, conifer tree native to the Southeastern United States. Slash pine is n ...

at less than 215 seedlings per square meter.

Biological

The act of releasing native or nonnative predators of pest species is uncommon in forest integrated pest management. It would not be economically feasible to utilize this method in a forestry scenario. Instead, the forest and its surrounding area is managed in a way to promote natural enemies of pest species. In a study of

eucalyptus ''Eucalyptus'' () is a genus of more than 700 species of flowering plants in the family Myrtaceae. Most species of ''Eucalyptus'' are trees, often Mallee (habit), mallees, and a few are shrubs. Along with several other genera in the tribe Eucalyp ...

plantation Plantations are farms specializing in cash crops, usually mainly planting a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. Plantations, centered on a plantation house, grow crops including cotton, cannabis, tob ...

s in

Brazil Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in South America. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by area, fifth-largest country by area and the List of countries and dependencies by population ...

, the closer the plantation is to a "natural" more diverse forest, the more diverse and balanced the insect populations are. This more diverse environment is less likely for produce an outbreak of pest species.

Bacillus thuringiensis ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' (or Bt) is a gram-positive bacteria, gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, the most commonly used biological pesticide worldwide. ''B. thuringiensis'' also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types ...

(Bt) is a bacterium that is used to kill

larva A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase ...

e of many pest species. This can be applied aerially or on the ground over large surfaces. Bt is safe for humans and other wildlife since it only infects certain species of insects.

Chemical

Integrated pest management was designed after Rachael Carson's ''

Silent Spring ''Silent Spring'' is an environmental science book by Rachel Carson. Published on September 27, 1962, the book documented the environmental harm caused by the indiscriminate use of DDT, a pesticide used by soldiers during World War II. Carson acc ...

'' as a way to manage for pests without overusing pesticides. Chemicals are still used but in a way that focuses on proper use of

pesticide Pesticides are substances that are used to control pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others (see table). The most common of these are herbicides, which account for approximately 50% of all p ...

application so overuse does not occur. The fungicide

triadimefon Triadimefon is a fungicide Fungicides are pesticides used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in losses of yield and quality. Fungicides are used both in agriculture and to fight f ...

is applied to loblolly and slash pine seeds to prevent fusiform rust. If the seeds used are not treated for fusiform rust, the stand can lose 1–30% of their trees to the rust. Longleaf pine is naturally resistant to fusiform rust so their seeds are not treated with triadimefon. Southern pine nurseries fumigate the soil every four years and hardwood nurseries fumigate yearly. Fumigation promotes growth of beneficial fungus

Trichoderma ''Trichoderma'' is a genus of fungi in the family Hypocreaceae that is present in all soils, where they are the most prevalent culturable fungi. Many species in this genus can be characterized as opportunistic avirulent plant symbionts. This re ...

and less of the harmful Phythium fungus. In forest integrated pest management,

insecticide Insecticides are pesticides used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. The major use of insecticides is in agriculture, but they are also used in home and garden settings, i ...

s are not applied until an infestation is observed.

Herbicide Herbicides (, ), also commonly known as weed killers, are substances used to control undesired plants, also known as weeds.EPA. February 201Pesticides Industry. Sales and Usage 2006 and 2007: Market Estimates. Summary in press releasMain page f ...

s are used to control weeds in nurseries. Low rates and frequent application intervals of herbicide is what is recommended.

Eucalyptus plantations

Eucalyptus plantations provide a unique management challenge since they are commonly grown out of their native range and also in

monoculture In agriculture, monoculture is the practice of growing one crop species in a field at a time. Monocultures increase ease and efficiency in planting, managing, and harvesting crops short-term, often with the help of machinery. However, monocultur ...

s of

clones Clone or Clones or Cloning or Cloned or The Clone may refer to: Places * Clones, County Fermanagh, Ireland * Clones, County Monaghan, a town in Ireland * Clones railway station, Ireland Biology * Clone (B-cell), a lymphocyte clone, the massiv ...

. Large

homogeneous Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, i ...

areas of one species of tree are more susceptible of pest attacks. This is due to an abundant and predictable amount of food for the pest, and an absence of their natural enemies. There are less predator species in monocultures because the plants they need to forage, rest and lay eggs on are not there. This combination is why monoculture environments favor certain species and amplify their numbers to pest levels. The biggest pest concern with eucalyptus plantations in Brazil, for example, are leaf-cutting ants and

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) or lepidopterans is an order (biology), order of winged insects which includes butterflies and moths. About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera have been described, representing 10% of the total described species of living organ ...

n (moth and butterfly) defoliators. Leaf-cutting ants contribute the most damage to these plantations. The insecticide

methyl bromide Bromomethane, commonly known as methyl bromide, is an organobromine compound with chemical formula, formula Carbon, CHydrogen, H3Bromine, Br. This colorless, odorless, nonflammable gas is Bromine cycle, produced both industrially and biologically ...

is needed to fight leaf-cutting ants, with application done within a month of planting. Periodic applications during the rest of the rotation may be necessary. Monitoring leaf-cutting ant activity is crucial in eucalyptus plantations. Keeping a vegetative

understory In forestry and ecology, understory (American English), or understorey (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English), also known as underbrush or undergrowth, includes plant life growing beneath the Canopy (biology), forest ca ...

can also lower leaf-cutting ant numbers. Lepidoptera larvae can be controlled with Bt application. Using a tractor is a more efficient than aerially applying Bt since the canopy is so closed and the Bt needs to reach the ground where the larvae are. Traps are used to monitor larva levels to help better manage for them.

References

External links

University of Vermont Entomology Site

Pest Control & Effective Pest Treatment
{{forestry Pest control techniques Sustainable forest management Forest management Forest pathology