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Florian Witold Znaniecki (; 15 January 1882 – 23 March 1958) was a Polish-born American
philosopher Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
and sociologist who taught and wrote in
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
and in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
. Over the course of his work, he shifted his focus from philosophy to sociology. He remains a major figure in the history of Polish and American sociology; the founder of Polish academic sociology, and of an entire school of thought in sociology. He won international renown as co-author, with William I. Thomas, of the study, '' The Polish Peasant in Europe and America'' (1918–1920), which is considered the foundation of modern empirical sociology. He also made major contributions to
sociological theory A sociological theory is a that intends to consider, analyze, and/or explain objects of social reality from a sociological perspective,Macionis, John and Linda M. Gerber. 2010. ''Sociology'' (7th Canadian ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson ...
, introducing terms such as " humanistic coefficient" and " culturalism". In Poland, he established the first Polish department of sociology at Adam Mickiewicz University, where he worked from 1920 to 1939. His career in the US began at the
University of Chicago The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, or UChi) is a Private university, private research university in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Its main campus is in the Hyde Park, Chicago, Hyde Park neighborhood on Chicago's South Side, Chic ...
(1917 to 1919) and continued at
Columbia University Columbia University in the City of New York, commonly referred to as Columbia University, is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Churc ...
(1932 to 1934 and 1939 to 1940) and at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1942 to 1950). He was the 44th President of the
American Sociological Association The American Sociological Association (ASA) is a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing the discipline and profession of sociology. Founded in December 1905 as the American Sociological Society at Johns Hopkins University by a group of fi ...
(for the year 1954).


Life


Childhood and education

Florian Znaniecki was born on 15 January 1882 at Świątniki,
Congress Poland Congress Poland or Congress Kingdom of Poland, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland, was a polity created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a semi-autonomous Polish state, a successor to Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw. It was established w ...
, a state controlled by the
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
to Leon Znaniecki and Amelia, née Holtz. He received early schooling from tutors, then attended secondary schools at
Warsaw Warsaw, officially the Capital City of Warsaw, is the capital and List of cities and towns in Poland, largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the Vistula, River Vistula in east-central Poland. Its population is officially estimated at ...
and
Częstochowa Częstochowa ( , ) is a city in southern Poland on the Warta with 214,342 inhabitants, making it the thirteenth-largest city in Poland. It is situated in the Silesian Voivodeship. However, Częstochowa is historically part of Lesser Poland, not Si ...
. While in secondary school, he was a member of an underground study group, specializing in history, literature and philosophy. His secondary-school grades were average at best, and he had to repeat a year of school; this was largely due to his extracurricular interest in Polish-language study, which was banned under the Russified school program. As a youth, he wrote some poetry, including a
drama Drama is the specific Mode (literature), mode of fiction Mimesis, represented in performance: a Play (theatre), play, opera, mime, ballet, etc., performed in a theatre, or on Radio drama, radio or television.Elam (1980, 98). Considered as a g ...
, ''Cheops'' (1903). A poem of his, "Do Prometeusza" ("To Prometheus"), was included in a 1900 anthology; however, neither he in later life, nor literary critics, judged his poetry outstanding. He entered the Imperial University of Warsaw in 1902, but was soon expelled after taking part in protests against the Russian administration's curtailment of student rights. Threatened with
conscription Conscription, also known as the draft in the United States and Israel, is the practice in which the compulsory enlistment in a national service, mainly a military service, is enforced by law. Conscription dates back to antiquity and it conti ...
into the
Imperial Russian Army The Imperial Russian Army () was the army of the Russian Empire, active from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was organized into a standing army and a state militia. The standing army consisted of Regular army, regular troops and ...
, he chose to emigrate, and in early 1904 he left Warsaw for
Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...
. During that period, he was briefly an editor at a French-language literary magazine, ''Nice Illustrée'' (late 1904 – early 1905); faked his own death; briefly served in the French Foreign Legion in
Algeria Algeria, officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to Algeria–Tunisia border, the northeast by Tunisia; to Algeria–Libya border, the east by Libya; to Alger ...
; and worked at a flea market, on a farm, in a traveling circus, and as a librarian at the Polish Museum in
Rapperswil Rapperswil (Swiss German: or ;Andres Kristol, ''Rapperswil SG (See)'' in: ''Dictionnaire toponymique des communes suisses – Lexikon der schweizerischen Gemeindenamen – Dizionario toponomastico dei comuni svizzeri (DTS, LSG)'', Centre de dial ...
, Switzerland. In Switzerland, he soon resumed his university studies, first at the
University of Geneva The University of Geneva (French: ''Université de Genève'') is a public university, public research university located in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1559 by French theologian John Calvin as a Theology, theological seminary. It rema ...
(1905–1907), then at the
University of Zurich The University of Zurich (UZH, ) is a public university, public research university in Zurich, Switzerland. It is the largest university in Switzerland, with its 28,000 enrolled students. It was founded in 1833 from the existing colleges of the ...
(1907–1908), eventually transferring to the Sorbonne in
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
,
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
(1908–1909), where he attended lectures by sociologist
Émile Durkheim David Émile Durkheim (; or ; 15 April 1858 – 15 November 1917) was a French Sociology, sociologist. Durkheim formally established the academic discipline of sociology and is commonly cited as one of the principal architects of modern soci ...
. In 1909, after the death of his supervisor Frédéric Rauh, he returned to Poland, where in 1910 he obtained his PhD degree at
Jagiellonian University The Jagiellonian University (, UJ) is a public research university in Kraków, Poland. Founded in 1364 by Casimir III the Great, King Casimir III the Great, it is the oldest university in Poland and one of the List of oldest universities in con ...
, in
Kraków , officially the Royal Capital City of Kraków, is the List of cities and towns in Poland, second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city has a population of 804,237 ...
, under a new supervisor, .


Early Polish career

That year he also joined the , in which he would be highly active over the next few years, becoming its vice president in 1913–1914. Much of his early academic work at that time could be classified as
philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
. In 1909, aged 27, he published his first academic paper, ''Etyka filozoficzna i nauka o wartościach moralnych'' ("Philosophical Ethics and the Science of Moral Values"); a year later, he published ''Zagadnienie wartości w filozofii'' (''The Question of Values in Philosophy''), based on his doctoral dissertation, and a paper, ''Myśl i rzeczywistosc'' ("Mind and Reality"). In 1912, he published a new book, ''Humanizm i Poznanie'' (''Humanism and Knowledge''), and a paper, ''Elementy rzeczywistości praktycznej'' ("Elements of Practical Reality"). A year later, he published an annotated translation of
Henri Bergson Henri-Louis Bergson (; ; 18 October 1859 – 4 January 1941) was a French philosopher who was influential in the traditions of analytic philosophy and continental philosophy, especially during the first half of the 20th century until the S ...
's '' Creative Evolution'' and a paper, ''Znaczenie rozwoju świata i człowieka'' ("The Meaning of World and Human Development"). The year 1914 saw the publication of his papers, ''Formy i zasady twórczości moralnej'' ("Forms and Principles of Moral Creativity") and ''Zasada względności jako podstawa filozofii'' ("The Principle of Relativity as a Foundation of Philosophy"). His works, published in Polish, were well received by the Polish scholarly community and
intelligentsia The intelligentsia is a status class composed of the university-educated people of a society who engage in the complex mental labours by which they critique, shape, and lead in the politics, policies, and culture of their society; as such, the i ...
. Due to his past political activism, he was unable to secure a post at a major university. From 1912 to 1914, he lectured at a novel women's institution of higher education, the . During his studies, he had worked at several European institutions dealing with Polish immigrants; he would build on his experiences by becoming involved with the Warsaw-based Society for the Welfare of Émigrés (''Towarzystwo Opieki nad Wychodźcami''), where he worked in 1910–1914. By 1911, he was the Society's director and (1911–1912) editor of its journal, ''Wychodźca Polski'' (''The Polish Émigré''). Znaniecki became an expert on Polish migration, in 1914 authoring for the government a 500-page report, ''Wychodźtwo Sezonowe'' (''Seasonal Migration'').


Work with Thomas

A year earlier, in 1913, Znaniecki had met William I. Thomas, an American sociologist who had come to Poland in connection with his research on Polish immigrants in the United States. Thomas and Znaniecki had begun to collaborate, and soon Thomas invited Znaniecki to come to
Chicago Chicago is the List of municipalities in Illinois, most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and in the Midwestern United States. With a population of 2,746,388, as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the List of Unite ...
to continue work with him in the United States. In July 1914, just on the eve of
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, Znaniecki left Poland to work with Thomas as a
research assistant A research assistant (RA) is a researcher employed, often on a temporary contract, by a university, research institute, or privately held organization to provide assistance in academic or private research endeavors. Research assistants work under ...
. From 1917 to 1919, Znaniecki also lectured in sociology at the
University of Chicago The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, or UChi) is a Private university, private research university in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Its main campus is in the Hyde Park, Chicago, Hyde Park neighborhood on Chicago's South Side, Chic ...
. Their work culminated in co-authoring of '' The Polish Peasant in Europe and America'' (1918–1920), considered a sociology classic. It was his collaboration with Thomas that marked the transition in Znaniecki's career from philosopher to sociologist. Znaniecki stayed with Thomas in Chicago until mid-1919, when he moved to New York, following Thomas, who had lost his job at Chicago due to a spurious scandal. That year Znaniecki published a new book, still mostly philosophical rather than sociological, ''Cultural Reality''. Published in English, it was a synthesis of his philosophical thought. In New York, Thomas and Znaniecki carried on research for the Carnegie Corporation on the process of immigrant Americanization. Znaniecki contributed to Thomas' book, ''Old World Traits Transplanted'', and published an anonymous solicited article on that topic in the February 1920 '' Atlantic Monthly''.


Founding Polish sociology

Poland had regained independence in 1918, following World War I. In 1919, Znaniecki contacted the newly founded Ministry of Religious Affairs and Public Education, offering to return to Poland if the Ministry could help him secure a chair at a Polish university. He proposed creating a novel Institute of Sociology, but bureaucracy and communication delays resulted in that idea being shelved, and he was offered a philosophy professorship at the newly organized Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. In 1920, Znaniecki returned to the newly established
Second Polish Republic The Second Polish Republic, at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland, was a country in Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 7 October 1918 and 6 October 1939. The state was established in the final stage of World War I ...
, where at Poznań University he soon became Poland's first chair in sociology. He accomplished this by renaming the department, originally "Third Philosophical Department", to "Department of Sociology and Cultural Philosophy", doing the same for his chair, and establishing a Sociological Seminary. That same year he also founded the Polish Institute of Sociology (''Polski Instytut Socjologiczny''), the fifth-oldest sociological institute in Europe. In 1927, his department was officially renamed to "department of sociology", and in 1930, the department gained authorization to issue degrees in sociology. Also in 1930, the Polish Institute of Sociology began publishing the first Polish sociological journal, '' Przegląd Socjologiczny'' (The Sociological Review), with Znaniecki its chief editor from 1930 to 1939. That year, the Institute organized Poland's first academic sociologists' conference. Due to his role as founder of so many of its building blocks, Znaniecki is considered as one of the fathers of sociology in Poland.


Later U.S. career

Keeping in touch with American sociologists, Znaniecki lectured as a visiting professor at
Columbia University Columbia University in the City of New York, commonly referred to as Columbia University, is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Churc ...
in
New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
in 1932–34 and during the summer of 1939. That summer ended the Polish stage of his career, as the
invasion of Poland The invasion of Poland, also known as the September Campaign, Polish Campaign, and Polish Defensive War of 1939 (1 September – 6 October 1939), was a joint attack on the Second Polish Republic, Republic of Poland by Nazi Germany, the Slovak R ...
and the start of World War II prevented his return to Poland. He was already aboard a ship bound for Poland when his travel was cut short in the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
. He still briefly considered returning to Poland, where his wife and daughter remained; however, faced with the occupation, he returned to the United States in 1940. His wife and daughter, after briefly being imprisoned in a Nazi concentration camp, joined him. With help from American colleagues, Znaniecki obtained an extension of his appointment at Columbia University through mid-1940. He then moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and in 1942, obtained American citizenship, allowing him to transition from a visiting to a regular professorship. He taught at the University of Illinois until his retirement, deciding not to return to the communist
Polish People's Republic The Polish People's Republic (1952–1989), formerly the Republic of Poland (1947–1952), and also often simply known as Poland, was a country in Central Europe that existed as the predecessor of the modern-day democratic Republic of Poland. ...
, established in the
aftermath of World War II The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of two global superpowers, the United States (U.S.) and the Soviet Union (U.S.S.R.). The aftermath of World War II was also defined by the rising threat of nuclear warfare, the creation and implementati ...
, despite the offer of a chair at Poznań University. In 1950, he retired, becoming a
professor emeritus ''Emeritus/Emerita'' () is an honorary title granted to someone who retirement, retires from a position of distinction, most commonly an academic faculty position, but is allowed to continue using the previous title, as in "professor emeritus". ...
. He was 44th President of the
American Sociological Association The American Sociological Association (ASA) is a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing the discipline and profession of sociology. Founded in December 1905 as the American Sociological Society at Johns Hopkins University by a group of fi ...
(for 1954). His presidential address, "Basic Problems of Contemporary Sociology," was delivered on September 8, 1954 at the Association's annual meeting and was later published in the ''
American Sociological Review The ''American Sociological Review'' is a bi-monthly peer-reviewed academic journal covering all aspects of sociology. It is published by SAGE Publications on behalf of the American Sociological Association. It was established in 1936. It is along ...
''. He died on March 23, 1958 in
Champaign, Illinois Champaign ( ) is a city in Champaign County, Illinois, United States. The population was 88,302 at the 2020 census. It is the List of municipalities in Illinois, tenth-most populous municipality in Illinois and the fourth most populous city in ...
. The cause of death was arteriosclerosis. His funeral took place on March 26, and he was buried at Roselawn Champaign Cemetery.


Family

In 1906, Znaniecki married a fellow Polish student at the
University of Geneva The University of Geneva (French: ''Université de Genève'') is a public university, public research university located in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1559 by French theologian John Calvin as a Theology, theological seminary. It rema ...
, Emilia Szwejkowska. They had a son, poet and writer , born in 1908. Emilia died in 1915. The next year, Znaniecki married Eileen Markley (1886–1976). They had one daughter, sociologist Helena Znaniecki Lopata, born in 1925.


Importance

Polish sociologist and historian of ideas Jerzy Szacki writes that Znaniecki's major contributions include: the founding of sociology in Poland; his work in empirical sociology; and his work in
sociological theory A sociological theory is a that intends to consider, analyze, and/or explain objects of social reality from a sociological perspective,Macionis, John and Linda M. Gerber. 2010. ''Sociology'' (7th Canadian ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson ...
. Szacki notes that Znaniecki sought to bridge a number of gaps: between empirical sociology and more theoretical approaches; between objectivity and subjectivity; between humanistic and naturalistic methodologies and viewpoints; and between American and European intellectual traditions. Szacki writes that, while Znaniecki's theoretical contributions were subsequently pushed into the background by
Talcott Parsons Talcott Parsons (December 13, 1902 – May 8, 1979) was an American sociologist of the classical tradition, best known for his social action theory and structural functionalism. Parsons is considered one of the most influential figures in soci ...
' " functionalism", Znaniecki offered the most ambitious sociological theory known to America before Parsons. Znaniecki's most famous work remains ''The Polish Peasant in Europe and America'' (1918–1920), co-authored with William I. Thomas. His other major works include ''Wstęp do socjologii'' (An Introduction to Sociology, 1922), ''The Method of Sociology'' (1934), ''Social Actions'' (1936), ''The Social Role of the Man of Knowledge'' (1940) and ''Cultural Sciences'' (1952).


Themes


Empirical sociology

Znaniecki's contributions to empirical sociology began after, and were influenced by, his collaboration with William I. Thomas. ''The Polish Peasant in Europe and America'' (1918–1920), a five-volume work which he wrote with Thomas, is considered a classic of
empirical Empirical evidence is evidence obtained through sense experience or experimental procedure. It is of central importance to the sciences and plays a role in various other fields, like epistemology and law. There is no general agreement on how t ...
sociology. It is a study of Polish immigrants to America, based on personal documents. The work became a landmark study of Americanization — of how new immigrants to the United States "become Americans". This work represents Znaniecki's most valued contribution to empirical sociology. Most of his other works focused on theory, the only other notable exception being ''Miasto w świadomości jego obywateli'' (The City in the Consciousness of its Citizens, 1931).


Sociology: theory and definition

A key element of Znaniecki's sociological theory is his view of sociology in particular, and of the
social sciences Social science (often rendered in the plural as the social sciences) is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of society, societies and the Social relation, relationships among members within those societies. The term was former ...
in general, as a scientific field uniquely different from the
natural sciences Natural science or empirical science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer ...
. Znaniecki defines sociology as a study of social actions. His recommended
methodology In its most common sense, methodology is the study of research methods. However, the term can also refer to the methods themselves or to the philosophical discussion of associated background assumptions. A method is a structured procedure for bri ...
was analytic induction: analysis of typical case studies, and generalization from them. Znaniecki's theories form a major part of sociology's action theory, and his work is a major part of the foundation of humanistic sociology. Another term connected with Znaniecki's theories is "systematic sociology" (''"socjologia systematyczna"''). He sought to create a grand sociological theory, one that would bridge the gap between empirical sociology and more theoretical approaches. Znaniecki criticized the widespread definition of sociology as the study of
society A society () is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. ...
. In Znaniecki's culturalist perspective, sociology is a study of
culture Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, Attitude (psychology), attitudes ...
(though it is not ''the'' study of culture, as Znaniecki recognized that other social sciences also study culture). His definition of sociology has been described as that of "a cultural science whose function is to study systems of social interaction based upon patterns of values and norms of behaviour, through the use of the humanistic coefficient", or more simply, "the investigation of organized, interdependent interaction among human beings." The part of the culture that sociology focused on was that of
social relation A social relation is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more conspecifics within and/or between groups. The group can be a language or ...
or interaction. Znaniecki saw culture as a field separate from nature, but also from individuals' perceptions. The essence of culture is socially constructed objects. He was one of the first sociologists to begin analyzing personal documents such as letters,
autobiographies An autobiography, sometimes informally called an autobio, is a self-written account of one's own life, providing a personal narrative that reflects on the author's experiences, memories, and insights. This Literary genre, genre allows individua ...
, diaries, and the like. He considered the analysis of such documents an important part of the humanistic-coefficient method. Znaniecki saw sociology as an objective, inductive and generalizing science. According to Szacki, Znaniecki viewed sociology as a nomothetic science that should be able to use a methodology similar to that of the natural sciences (however, Znaniecki's daughter Helena Znaniecki Lopata, in her introduction to ''Social Relations and Social Roles'', contradicts Szacki, writing that, for Znaniecki, sociology was a science "whose subject matter calls for a method different from that of the natural sciences."). In 1934 he formulated the principle of analytic induction, designed to identify universal propositions and causal laws. He contrasted it with enumerative research, which provided mere correlations and could not account for exceptions in statistical relationships. He was also critical of the statistical method, which he did not see as very useful. In addition to the science of sociology, Znaniecki was also deeply interested in the larger field of the sociology of science. He analyzed the social roles of scientists, and the concept of a school of thought.


Four social systems

According to Znaniecki, sociology can be divided into the study of four dynamic social systems: social action theory, social relation theory, social actors theory, and social groups theory. Znaniecki saw social actions as the foundation of a society, as they give rise to more complex social relations, and he saw this theory as the foundation of all the others. Unlike
Max Weber Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (; ; 21 April 186414 June 1920) was a German Sociology, sociologist, historian, jurist, and political economy, political economist who was one of the central figures in the development of sociology and the social sc ...
, he did not believe that everything can be reduced to social actions; he was also quite skeptical of any insights coming from the science of
psychology Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans, both consciousness, conscious and Unconscious mind, unconscious phenomena, and mental processes such as thoughts, feel ...
, which he held in low esteem. The four major forms of cooperative interaction, or four social systems, in growing complexity, were: * social actions (in Polish, ''"czyny społeczne"'' or ''"czynności społeczne"''): the most basic type of social fact; *
social relations A social relation is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more conspecifics within and/or between groups. The group can be a language or k ...
(in Polish, ''"stosunki społeczne"''): these require at least two persons and a mutual obligation; the study of social relations is the study of norms regulating social actions; * social personalities (in Polish, ''"osoby społeczne"'' or ''"osobowości społeczne"''): the combined picture that emerges from a number of different
social role A role (also rôle or social role) is a set of connected behaviors, rights, moral obligation, obligations, beliefs, and social norm, norms as conceptualized by people in a social situation. It is an expected or free or continuously changing behav ...
s that an individual has; * social group (in Polish, ''"grupa społeczna"''): any group which is recognized by some as a separate entity; Znaniecki saw a society as a group of groups, but denied it primacy as an area that the sociologist should focus on (while at the same time recognizing that most sociologists differed on this). The four-category division described above appeared in his 1934 book, ''The Method of Sociology''. By 1958 he had reformulated the division, and was speaking instead of social relations, social roles, social groups, and societies.


Sociology of culture

Znaniecki coined the term " humanistic coefficient" for a method of
social research Social research is research conducted by social scientists following a systematic plan. Social research methodologies can be classified as quantitative and qualitative. * Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable ...
by way of
data analysis Data analysis is the process of inspecting, Data cleansing, cleansing, Data transformation, transforming, and Data modeling, modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making. Da ...
that emphasizes participants' perceptions of the experience being analyzed. The humanistic coefficient sees all social facts as being created by social actors and as being understandable only from their perspective. Thus the sociologist ought to study reality by trying to understand how others see the world, not (objectively) as an independent observer; in other words, the scientist needs to understand the subject's world. While some have criticized this approach as being too close to
subjectivism Subjectivism is the doctrine that "our own mental activity is the only unquestionable fact of our experience", instead of shared or communal, and that there is no external or objective truth. While Thomas Hobbes was an early proponent of subjecti ...
, Znaniecki himself saw it as anti-subjectivist; he observed that social facts such as cultural systems can exist even if no one perceives their existence. He was also skeptical of any value coming from personal, subjective observations, arguing that such observations have value only if they can be objectively described. He argued that the difference between the natural and social sciences lies not in the difference between objective and subjective experiences, but in the subject being studied: for Znaniecki, the natural sciences studied things, and the social sciences studied cultural values. Znaniecki characterized the world as being caught within two contrary modes of reflection;
idealism Idealism in philosophy, also known as philosophical realism or metaphysical idealism, is the set of metaphysics, metaphysical perspectives asserting that, most fundamentally, reality is equivalent to mind, Spirit (vital essence), spirit, or ...
and realism. He proposed a third way, which he called " culturalism". His culturalism was one of the founding ideas of modern antipositivist and antinaturalist sociology. The term "culturalism" was introduced into English in his book, ''Cultural Reality'' (1919), and was translated into Polish as ''"kulturalizm"''; previously Znaniecki had discussed the concept in Polish as "humanism" (''"humanizm"''). Elżbieta Hałas has insisted on a gradual evolution of Znaniecki's sociology of culture from ''Cultural Reality'' to ''Cultural Sciences'', his most reviewed book, which was published more than thirty years later, in 1952. By that time, Znaniecki saw the cultural order as "axionormative", a universal concept encompassing “relationships among all kind of human actions” and the corresponding values. Hałas noted that this approach put him at odds with what was the dominant approach of the sociology of culture in the 1950s, whose most authoritative exponents were Americans who regarded Znaniecki's approach as typically European and hardly applicable to the analysis of culture in the United States.


Other themes

Znaniecki's work also touched on many other areas of sociology, such as intergroup conflict, urban sociology, and rural sociology.


Works

Znaniecki's first academic works, of the 1910s, were more philosophical than sociological in nature; beginning in the 1920s, his works were primarily sociological. His ''Cultural Reality'' (1919) was a synthesis of his philosophical thought, but the simultaneous publication of his much more popular ''The Polish Peasant in Europe and America'' (1918–1920) associated his name in academic circles primarily with sociology rather than with philosophy. His early works focused on analysis of culture and strongly criticized the principles of sociological naturalism. Szacki notes a puzzling gap in Znaniecki's research: while he was well-read in, and engaged with, most previous and current theories, he largely ignored the works of some notable sociologists of his time such as
Max Weber Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (; ; 21 April 186414 June 1920) was a German Sociology, sociologist, historian, jurist, and political economy, political economist who was one of the central figures in the development of sociology and the social sc ...
,
Vilfredo Pareto Vilfredo Federico Damaso Pareto (; ; born Wilfried Fritz Pareto; 15 July 1848 – 19 August 1923) was an Italian polymath, whose areas of interest included sociology, civil engineering, economics, political science, and philosophy. He made severa ...
and
Talcott Parsons Talcott Parsons (December 13, 1902 – May 8, 1979) was an American sociologist of the classical tradition, best known for his social action theory and structural functionalism. Parsons is considered one of the most influential figures in soci ...
. On the other hand, his works engaged closely with those of William I. Thomas,
Georg Simmel Georg Simmel (; ; 1 March 1858 – 26 September 1918) was a German sociologist, philosopher, and critic. Simmel was influential in the field of sociology. Simmel was one of the first generation of German sociologists: his neo-Kantian approach ...
, Robert E. Park, and
Émile Durkheim David Émile Durkheim (; or ; 15 April 1858 – 15 November 1917) was a French Sociology, sociologist. Durkheim formally established the academic discipline of sociology and is commonly cited as one of the principal architects of modern soci ...
. His ''The Method of Sociology'' first introduced his concept of divisions within subfields of sociology. His most notable works included two books published in the same year (1952): ''Modern Nationalities'', and ''Cultural Sciences''. The former is an analysis of the evolution of national-culture societies, and the latter presents a theoretical study of the relation between sociology and other sciences. Znaniecki never finished his '' magnum opus'', ''Systematic Sociology'', which would eventually be collected and published posthumously in its unfinished but final form as ''Social Relations and Social Roles: The Unfinished Systematic Sociology'' (1965).


List of works

Roughly half of Znaniecki's published works are in English; the rest are in Polish. In English: Books * * * * * * * * * * * * * Articles * * In Polish: * ''Zagadnienie wartości w filozofii'' (The Question of Value in Philosophy), Warsaw, 1910. * ''Humanizm i poznanie'' (Humanism and Knowledge), Warsaw, 1912. * ''Upadek cywilizacji zachodniej: Szkic z pogranicza filozofii kultury i socjologii'' (The Decline of Western Civilization: A Sketch from the Interface of Cultural Philosophy and Sociology), Poznań, 1921. * ''Wstęp do socjologii'' (An Introduction to Sociology), Poznań, 1922. * * ''Socjologia wychowania'' (The Sociology of Education), Warsaw (vol. I: 1928; vol. II: 1930). * ''Miasto w świadomości jego obywateli'' (The City in the Consciousness of Its Citizens), Poznań, 1931. * ''Ludzie teraźniejsi a cywilizacja przyszłości'' (Contemporary People and the Civilization of the Future), Lwów, 1934.


See also

* * * * Sociology in Poland


References

ASR October 1954 Vol 19 No 5, pp 519–524)


Further reading

* * *


External links


Bio from American Sociological Association

Guide to the Florian Znaniecki Papers 1906-1989
at the University of Chicago * * William Thomas and Florian Znaniecki. ''The Polish Peasant in Europe and America'', 2 vol 1920; famous classi
complete 5 vol text online
(public domain) * Photos of Znaniecki (of unknown copyright status) are available at

{{DEFAULTSORT:Znaniecki, Florian 1882 births 1958 deaths 20th-century American philosophers 20th-century Polish philosophers Academic staff of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań American sociologists Columbia University faculty Emigrants from Congress Poland to the United States Historians of Polish Americans Jagiellonian University alumni People from Włocławek County Polish sociologists Presidents of the American Sociological Association University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign faculty University of Warsaw alumni