flamines

A (plural ''flamines'') was a priest of the ancient Roman religion who was assigned to one of fifteen deities with official cults during the Roman Republic. The most important of these were the three (or "major priests"), who served the important Roman gods Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus. The remaining twelve were the ("lesser priests"). Two of the served deities whose names are now unknown; among the others are deities about whom little is known other than the name. During the Imperial era, the cult of a deified emperor () also had a flamen.

The fifteen Republican flamens were members of the Pontifical College, who administered state-sponsored religion. When the office of flamen was vacant, a could serve as a temporary replacement, although only the is known to have substituted for the , one of the .

Etymology

The etymology of remains obscure, and perhaps undecidable. Andrew Sihler ''New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin,'' Oxford University Press 1995 p.198:’ That such cases are strictly speaking undecidable, so far from calming debate, has seemed to stimulate ering in the scholarly literature.’ The term is traditionally connected with the Proto-Germanic verb ''*blōtaną'' ("to sacrifice"; cf. Gothic ''blotan''), by positing a Proto-Indo-European stem ''*bʰleh₂d-m(e)n-'' (or ''*bʰleh₂g-m(e)n-''), which could have originally meant "sacrifice". However, the link remains uncertain since it is impossible to decide whether the Latin form reflects an earlier ''flă-men'', ''flăd-men'' or ''flăg-smen''.

Indo-European scholar G. Dumézil attempted to link the term to the Sanskrit word ''brahman''. Dumézil himself notes that the etymology has problems in terms of phonological shifts, and the cognates have not been universally accepted by modern scholars.
Andrew Sihler considers the claim that ''flamen'' might be a cognate of the Vedic term to be as plausible. He notes that the hypothesis of a connection to Gothic ''blotan'' and via Proto-Indo-European ''*bʰleh₂d-m(e)n-'' is equally plausible.

History

At the time of the religious reformation by Augustus, the origins and functions of a number of gods resident in Rome were confusing even to the Romans themselves. The obscurity of some of the deities assigned a ''flamen'' (for example, Falacer, Palatua, Quirinus and Volturnus) suggests that the office dated back to Archaic Rome. Some scholars assume that the existed at least from the time of the early Roman kings, prior to the establishment of the Republic. The Romans themselves credited the foundation of the priesthood to Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. According to Livy, Numa created the offices of the three and assigned them each a fine robe of office and a curule chair. The were circumscribed by multiple taboos.

The ''flamen'' was a sacred position within Roman society; however, it could be used for political purposes. Certain people could be appointed as ''flamines'' to stop them from gaining power. For example, ''flamines'' were not allowed to ride a horse; therefore, this would make it extremely difficult for such a person to lead and command an army. By attaining such a position, the ''flamines'' were not permitted to run or hold a political office. There may have been ''flamines'' appointed to stop their political progression for reasons such as making enemies or simply jealousy.

In post-Antiquity usage, the designation "flamen" can apply, by extension, to priests in general.

Appointment

The ''flamen'' was a prestigious role within Roman society and religion. The selection process was difficult for those wishing to be chosen as ''flamen''. The ''Flamen Dialis'' was appointed by the Pontifex Maximus. By the Pontifical College, three nominations were given to the , those whom Romans believed to be the most worthy of such position. The Pontifex Maximus did not just select a new ''Flamen Dialis'', but "scrutinized each candidate's qualifications in order to ensure that he and his wife were fit to serve." After the ''flamen'' and his wife were chosen, they then had to participate in a Roman tradition and ceremony known as ''captio''. This ceremony was performed by an augur. It was the augur's job to make sure the gods would accept the new ''flamen''. This was done by asking for the appropriate deities for a blessing, and the gods would respond by providing the proper signs to the people. These ceremonies were known as '' comitia calata'' ("callate assemblies") and they were performed on the Capitoline Hill.

Privileges and disadvantages

The flaminate granted its holders considerable privileges in Roman society. In law and criminal courts, the ''flamen'' wielded great power. When a person was deemed a criminal, they could appeal to a ''flamen,'' who had the power of pardoning criminals.

There were also several other privileges that the ''flamines'' possessed. According to Cyril Bailey, these include: exemption from the ''Patria Potestas'' (lit. power of the father); permission to wear the '' toga praetexta''; having a lictor of his own; sitting on the curule chair; possession of an ''ex officio'' place in the Senate.

The ''flamines'', along with other members of the religious orders of Rome, were in charge of protecting the city's sacred objects. An anecdote accounted in Livy reports that before the sack of Rome in 390 BCE, the ''flamines'' evacuated from the city with their sacred items in an attempt to protect them, and debated burying the items they could not carry near their temple precincts. Ralph Mathisen writes, "Their sacred cult should not be abandoned as long as a single person survived to observe it".

The ''flamines'' were held to particularly strict standards of behavioural purity, particularly concerning associations with pollution and death. One extreme example concerned the wife of the ''flamen Dialis'', the ''flaminica Dialis'', who were not allowed to wear ''calcei morticini'', "shoes made from the skin of an animal that had died of natural causes."

Another disadvantage for the ''flamen'' and ''flaminica Dialis'' was that they "were also forbidden to touch, see, or refer to yeast, raw meat, goats, dogs, ivy, or beans". Most of these items were associated with pollution (yeast, dogs) or death (beans, raw meat). The ''flamen'' and ''flaminica Dialis'' were also required "to remain free of physical and social constraints".

Marriage

The major flaminates were conjugal offices, requiring the service of a married couple, and were restricted to patrician families. Both the parents of a ''flamen'', and the ''flamen'' himself, had to be have been married through the ancient ceremony of ''confarreatio''. This parental criterion only applied to the ''flamen,'' as his wife became part of his family through marriage. Through the ritual of ''confarreatio'', the bride passed from the ''manus'' (hand) of her father to that of her new husband. This transferred her father's authority to her husband. It was necessary for a potential ''flaminica'' to have been previously unwed before her marriage to her husband.

The ''flamen'' and the ''flaminica'' ''Dialis'' served jointly; in the case of either's death, the surviving spouse had to step down from their position. The ''flamen'' and ''flaminica'' ''Dialis'' were not permitted to separate or divorce. They were also responsible for performing certain rituals together. During certain practices and rituals, the ''flamen'' and ''flaminica'' had to follow certain rules, such as leaving during purification rituals. Other restrictions placed upon the ''flamen'' and ''flaminica Dialis'' pertained to their marital bed: only the married couple were allowed to sleep in this bed, and neither spouse could avoid sleeping in the bed for more than three consecutive nights. The end of this bed was lined with "a thin layer of clay."

Garb

The official costume of a ''flamen'' ''Dialis'', allegedly of great antiquity, consisted of a hat, called an ''albogalerus'', and a heavy cloak, called a ''laena''. The ''laena'' was a double-thick wool cloak with a fringed edge, and was worn over the flamen's toga praetexta with a clasp to hold it around his throat. The ''albogalerus'' was a leather skull-cap with a chin-strap and a point of olive wood, the ''apex,'' on its top. The ''apex'' was shaped like a spindle, with a little fluff of wool at the base of the spindle. This was the traditional outfit worn during rituals and sacrifices performed by the ''flamen''. The ''flamen'' would not wear the ''laena'' on a daily occurrence. The ''flamen'' also wore senatorial boots, ''calcei''. The ''flaminica Dialis'' was responsible for weaving her husband's ''laena''. The cloak was hand-spun and a ritual blade, known as ''a secespikta'', was used in the process. The ''laena'' had to be made of wool, possibly because of wool's apotropaic qualities and association with purity.

Duties and obligations

The duties of the ''flamen'' and the ''flaminica Dialis'' were not interchangeable, even where the nature of the ritual was similar. The ''flaminica Dialis'' was required to sacrifice a ram to Jupiter on ''nundinae'', market-days, in the ''regia'' at Rome, whereas the ''flamen Dialis'' was required to sacrifice a ram to Jupiter on the ''ides''.

The flaminate of the ''flamen'' and ''flaminica Dialis'' was particularly associated with nuptial duties.

Flamines maiores

The three were required to be patricians, and were accompanied by a corollary ''flaminica'', occupied by the ''flamen's'' wife.
*The oversaw the cult of Jupiter Capitolinus, deity of the heavens and ruler of the gods.
*The oversaw the cult of Mars, the god of war, leading public rites on the days sacred to Mars. The sacred spears of Mars were ritually shaken by the ''flamen Martialis'' when the legions were preparing for war.
*The oversaw the cult of Quirinus, associated with Roman societal organization and possibly related to the peaceful aspect of Mars. The ''flamen'' and ''flaminica Quirinalis'' led public rites on the days sacred to Quirinus.

A fourth was dedicated to Julius Caesar as a divinity () of the Roman state. Thereafter, any deceased emperor could be made ''divus'' by vote of the senate and consent of his successor, and as a ''divus'' he would be served by a flamen. The ''flamen'''s role in relation to living emperors is uncertain; no living emperor is known to have received official divine worship; see Imperial cult.

A ''flamen'' could also be represented by a , or by a member without that title who could act as a substitute for the ''flamen'' (''qui vice flaminis fungebatur'').

Flamines minores

The twelve could be plebeians. Some of the deities whose cult they tended were rather obscure, and only ten are known by name:

* , the flamen for Carmentis
* , for Ceres
* , for Falacer
* , for Flora
* , for Furrina
* , for Palatua
* , for Pomona
* , for Portunus
* , for Vulcan
* , for Volturnus

There were two other during the Republican period, but the names of the deities they worshipped are unknown. The ''flamines minores'' seem mostly connected to agriculture or local cults. The change to an urban way of life may explain why these deities lost their importance or fell into oblivion.

The and are not recorded in calendars as their festivals were moveable. Some information exists for the ritual roles of the in connection with the cult of the god Quirinus and in connexion with the cult of the goddess Maia on the Kalends of May. Also preserved is the list of deities invoked by the when he officiated at sacrifices to the goddesses Ceres and Tellus.

Scholars disagree about some differences among and . Some maintain the difference was not substantial. Others, among them Dumézil, believe that inherent differences lay in the right of the '' auspicia maiora'' and the ritual of inauguration that concerned only the by birth as , that is, as children of parents married through the ritual of ''confarreatio'', which was the form of marriage in turn required for . The also had the privilege of having , assistants who carried out day-to-day business.Fest. p. 354 L2; Jörg Rüpke, ''Religion of the Romans'' (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 22
online.
/ref> The difference would thus be akin to that between magistracies with and those with only.

Notes

Citations

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External links

"Flamen"

{{Ancient Roman religion horizontal

Ancient Roman religious titles
Jupiter (god)
Mars (mythology)
Ceres (mythology)
Flora (mythology)
Vulcan (mythology)